Life cycle of opisthorchiasis diagram. Family life cycle Developmental psychology human life cycle

Kulagina I.Yu., Kolyutsky V.N.

K90 Developmental psychology: The complete life cycle of human development. Textbook for higher education students educational institutions. - M.: Sphere shopping center, 2001. -464 p.

ISBN 5-89144-162-4

IN textbook at the rate developmental psychology(developmental psychology) reflects the full life cycle that a person goes through. Age-related patterns of development in infancy, early and preschool childhood, primary school and adolescence, adolescence, young adulthood, maturity and late adulthood are considered. Variants of personality development are traced depending on its orientation. Theoretical and factual material is presented in the traditions of the psychological school of L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontyev, D. B. Elkonina.

The manual is addressed to students of psychological faculties pedagogical institutes and universities, but may be useful to a wider circle of readers - school teachers, parents, young people interested in psychology.

ISBN 5-89144-162-4 LLC "TC Sfera", 2001

Preface

A person lives in the space of time: in the past, in the present, in the future, in parallel time. Sometimes he turns out to be completely out of time. Moreover, no matter what time he is in, at every moment of time all three colors of time are present in him (is he present?). The present, without any admixture of the past and future, evokes fear and horror. Strictly speaking, every moment of human life is an elementary, of course, virtual unit of eternity. If this were not so, man would never have had the idea of ​​eternity. This means that a person carries with him all the types of time he has endured, mastered and overcome, as well as the types of space he has mastered. Their virtuality should not confuse them. They are perceived more real than reality itself. True, people still thought of giving eternity to the gods. O. Mandelstam once spoke about the internal excess of space. Equally, there is an internal excess of time in a person, even, perhaps, to a greater extent than space. When a person does not know how to tame it, excess turns into lack of time. But this same excess of time is collected in the “instant - duration”, in the “eternal instant”; thanks to it, “states of absolute temporal intensity” arise (G.G. Shpet), a “real future field” arises (L.S. Vygotsky), or “a world of monstrous actuality” (M.K. Mamardashvili), when “ less than a year lasts a century” (B.L. Pasternak). MM. Bakhtin called such states “a timeless gap between two moments of time.” Time has not only an astronomical, but also an energetic dimension: the gravitational forces of the past and the future are not equal. There is “a chain connecting with the past, and a ray with the future” (V.V. Kandinsky). Bl. Augustine said that only through the tension of action can the future become the present. Without the tension of action, the future will forever remain where it is. Augustine, of course, had in mind the necessary future: the obscene comes of itself, becoming just as present.

The development cycle is presented in the table. Worms begin their sexually mature development in mollusks,

mainly in snails and shells. The table indicates two types of tapeworm: the liver fluke and the bovine tapeworm.

In the process of adaptation, tapeworms have learned to survive in the cercaria stage for quite a long time, swimming in bodies of water or waiting for a host on plant leaves. The structure of the cercaria includes a tail, with the help of which they are able to overcome significant distances, and suckers. The latter help the larvae to encyst on the grass, forming invasive conditions - cysts. Livestock eat this grass along waterways, lakes, and ponds and become infected with tapeworms. Infection occurs in a developmental stage called adolescaria. Once in the host’s body, it penetrates the blood vessels and wanders through the ducts throughout the body. It lingers in the liver and is attached to the walls there with the help of a suction cup. Maturation to adulthood begins.

By its structure, the tapeworm is a hermaphrodite. The adult begins to lay up to a million eggs, which are released in the host's feces. They fall into the water and open, revealing larvae called miracidium. At this stage, the larva wanders through the expanses of water in search of a mollusk, penetrating its body. Inside the mollusk, the miracidium matures to the cercaria stage and goes through several states: sporocysts - redia - cercariae. The small pond snail is a frequent carrier of worms.

The structure of the liver fluke

On the front side the structure has spines. There is a sucker located on the abdominal cavity. The anterior part also contains an oral sucker. The worm has an intestine with two branches, each of which has many branches.

The lateral parts contain yellowtops, and the urinary system consists of many branches. In the middle part are the testes and one ovary.

The body of the worm is elongated and has an oblong shape. It ends with an excretory opening.

The main routes of infection can be identified:

• eating infected plants;
• watering hole in lakes and ponds with cercariae.

Routes of infection by humans

multiply. A person feels the negative effect of his life activity immediately.

Possible causes of infection:

Symptoms of liver fluke

Symptoms of opisthorchiasis:

• Periodic increase in temperature.
• There is a breakdown in the body.
• It becomes difficult for a person to breathe.
• Various disorders in the digestive tract from constipation to diarrhea.
• Manifestations of allergic reactions.
• There is an enlargement of the liver.
• Pain in the right hypochondrium.

work, psychological instability increases, and daily headaches appear.

Manifestations of fascioliasis:

immunological methods and serological testing. The immunofluorescence reaction method and the complement fixation reaction are used. The enzyme-labeled antibody reaction method is used.

For prevention and treatment, antihelminthic drugs such as praziquantel and chloroxyl are used. Medicines that increase bile flow: allohol and cholenzyme. As well as enzymes that promote digestion: festal and pancreatitis.

Description and life cycle of the liver fluke

• Description
• Life cycle

Description

The liver fluke itself has a leaf-shaped body that is slightly flattened, and its rear end is pointed. At the anterior end of the body, the helminth has a narrow protrusion with an oral sucker. Having reached sexual maturity, the fluke has a well-functioning sucker, digestive and reproductive systems. Adult helminths lay their eggs in the ducts of the liver, together with the flow of bile they enter the intestine, from where they exit into external environment with excrement.

Life cycle

The life cycle of the liver fluke begins when helminth eggs fall into plain water: a puddle, stream or pond. Under such conditions, after two to three weeks, the miracidium emerges from the eggs. Miracidium is the larva of a fluke. The sizes of miracidia are quite small and are approximately 0.02-0.3 millimeters. When it lives in water, it leads a free-living lifestyle. The miracidium has a body covered with cilia, with the help of which the miracidium is able to move. The larva can cover a distance of two millimeters per second.

When the fluke is at this stage, it is not feeding. Its lifestyle depends on the nutrients accumulated in the egg. Leading such a lifestyle, the larva pursues one single goal - the search for an organism that will become a host for its further development.

The intermediate host of the fluke should be a mollusk. The intermediate host is often a freshwater pond snail or small pond snail. The intermediate host, “accepting” the larva into its body, allows it to continue its development cycle.

When an intermediate host is found, miracidium (a) is introduced into its body. Attaching to the body of the mollusk, it begins to secrete a gland secretion, with the help of which the tissues of the creature are split, and the larva gets inside. At the same time, the larva turns into a sporocyst (b) and continues the life cycle in this form.

The sporocyst is filled with germ cells; when their number increases significantly, redia emerge from the body of the sporocyst (c). They migrate to the liver of the mollusk. Reproduction of redia occurs without fertilization. Also, germ cells form the larvae of adult helminths - cercariae (d).

The lifestyle of cercariae differs from that of redia. Cercariae are practically no different from fully developed individuals. They already have suction cups, eyes, and sensory organs perceive irritations of mechanical and chemical type. The cercarium floats freely and lives off of nutrient reserves. After some time, it climbs onto the grass and soil near the pond, casts off its back tail, after which it becomes covered with a thick shell. This stage is called adolescaria.

In order for the adult fluke to emerge from this stage, Adolescaria must choose a new organism (the definitive host), then it will continue its development cycle. The definitive host swallows the larva along with coastal grass. It should be noted that the final host can be large and cattle. In the intestines of animals, the membrane dissolves, and the young fluke enters the bile ducts of the liver, where it continues its development cycle and reaches a sexually mature state. This is where it reproduces and lays eggs. Then the cycle begins again, until the next reproduction occurs.

Also, the final owner can be human. A person can become infected with helminths if they drink raw water from a pond or wash fruits and vegetables with it.

The textbook for the course on developmental psychology (developmental psychology) reflects the full life cycle that a person goes through. Age-related patterns of development in infancy, early and preschool childhood, primary school and adolescence, adolescence, youth, maturity and late adulthood are considered. Options for personality development are traced depending on its orientation. Theoretical and factual material is presented in the traditions of the psychological school of L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontyeva, D.B. Elkonina. The manual is addressed to students of psychological faculties of pedagogical institutes and universities, but may also be useful to a wider circle of readers - school teachers, parents, young people interested in psychology.

Section I. Problems of mental development 7

Chapter 1. Life and work 8

§ 1. The appearance of the mental form of life in phylogenesis 8

§ 2. Life as a total activity 12

§ 3. Structure of activity 14

§ 4. Leading activities 22

§ 5. Communication as a type of activity 24

Chapter 2. Development of the psyche in phylogenesis and the human psyche 29

§ 1. Level of undifferentiated sensitivity 29

§ 2. Sensory level 33

§ 3. Perceptual level 40

§ 4. Level of psyche of highly developed animals 47

§ 5. Level of the human psyche 59

Chapter 3. Motivation 70

§ 1. Motive, motivational sphere and life plan 70

§ 2. Individuality, personality, essence 73

§ 3. Life world and central life principle 78

§ 4. Features of the ontogeny of the life world 90

§ 5. Motivation and character types 93

§ 6. Dominant motifs and variants of ontogenesis lines 100

Chapter 4. Age development: factors and patterns 110

§ 1. Subject and methods of developmental psychology 110

§ 2. Factors and patterns of mental development 120

Chapter 5. Stages of mental development 130

§ 1. Criteria for the periodization of age development 130

§ 2. L.S. Vygotsky on the stages of development 132

§ 3. Periodization of mental development according to D.B. Elkonin 135

§ 4. Stages of adult development 137

Chapter 6. Personal development 143

§ 1. Periodization of personality development according to 3. Freud. 143

§ 2. Periodization of personality development according to E. Erikson 145

§ 3. Development of the moral consciousness of the individual according to L. Kohlberg 151

§ 4. Periodization of personality development according to A.V. Petrovsky 154

Chapter 7. Intellectual development 156

§ 1. Periodization of intellectual development according to J. Piaget 156

§ 2. Intellectual development of a child according to J. Bruner 166

Section P. Development in childhood and adolescence 171

Chapter 1. Infancy (up to 1 year) 172

§ 1. Newborn 172

§ 2. Infancy 175

§ 3. Crisis of 1 year 181

§ 4. Life world of a baby 184

Chapter 2. Early childhood (from 1 year to 3 years) 188

§ 1. Development of mental functions 188

§ 2. Emotional development 194

§ 3. Crisis of 3 years 197

§ 4. Development of the life world 200

Chapter 3. Preschool childhood (from 3 to 7 years) 204

§ 1. Game as a leading activity 204

§ 2. Development of mental functions 211

§ 3. Development of emotions, motives and self-awareness 218

§ 4. Development of the life world 226

Chapter 4. Six-year-old children. Psychological readiness for schooling 232

§ 1. The problem of teaching children from 6 years old 233

§ 2. Psychological readiness for school and its diagnosis 237

§ 3. Development options 245

Chapter 5. Junior school age(from 7 to 11 years) 251

§ 1. Crisis of 7 years 251

§ 2. Educational activities 254

§ 3. Development of mental functions 258

§ 4. Motivation and self-esteem 263

§ 5. Lines of development of the life world 272

Chapter 6. Adolescence (11-15 years) 280

§ 1. Puberty crisis 281

§ 2. Development of mental functions 284

§ 3. Development of self-awareness 287

§4. Teenage reactions 294

§ 5. Personal instability and teenage problems 303

§ 6. Lines of development of the life world 307

Chapter 7. Senior school age: early adolescence (16, 17 years old) 315

§ 1. Transition period 315

§ 2. Conditions of development 317

§ 3. Personality stabilization and self-determination 321

§ 4. Lines of development of the life world 327

Appendix to section II. Diagnosis of children’s psychological readiness for school 336

Section III. Development of a mature personality 341

Chapter 1. Youth (from 17 to 20-23 years old) 342

§ 1. Crisis of 17 years 342

§ 2. Conditions of development 345

§ 3. Main lines of ontogenesis 354

Chapter 2. Youth (from 20 to 30 years old) 363

§ 1. The main aspects of life 364

§ 2. Main lines of ontogenesis 381

§ 3. Crisis of 30 years. The problem of the meaning of life 394

Chapter 3. Maturity (from 30 to 60-70 years) 400

§ 1. Features of personality development. Professional Productivity 401

§ 2. Relations with children 407

§ 3. Maturity and psychological age 415

§ 4. Main lines of ontogenesis 423

Chapter 4. Late maturity (after 60-70 years) 436

§ 1. Conditions of development. Aging and psychological age 437

§ 2. Main lines of ontogenesis 443

§ 3. End of life 455

Preface

A person lives in the space of time: in the past, in the present, in the future, in parallel time. Sometimes he turns out to be completely out of time. Moreover, no matter what time he is in, at every moment of time all three colors of time are present in him (is he present?). The present, without any admixture of the past and future, evokes fear and horror. Strictly speaking, every moment of human life is an elementary, of course, virtual unit of eternity. If this were not so, man would never have had the idea of ​​eternity. This means that a person carries with him all the types of time he has endured, mastered and overcome, as well as the types of space he has mastered. Their virtuality should not confuse them. They are perceived more real than reality itself. True, people still thought of giving eternity to the gods. O. Mandelstam once spoke about the internal excess of space. Equally, there is an internal excess of time in a person, even, perhaps, to a greater extent than space. When a person does not know how to tame it, excess turns into lack of time. But this same excess of time is collected in the “instant-duration”, in the “eternal instant”; thanks to it, “states of absolute temporal intensity” arise (G.G. Shpet), a “real future field” arises (L.S. Vygotsky), or a “world of monstrous actuality” (M.K. Mamardashvili), when “lasts less than a year century" (B.L. Pasternak). MM. Bakhtin called such states “a timeless gap between two moments of time.” Time has not only an astronomical, but also an energetic dimension: the gravitational forces of the past and the future are not equal. There is “a chain connecting with the past, and a ray with the future” (V.V. Kandinsky). Bl. Augustine said that only through the tension of action can the future become the present. Without the tension of action, the future will forever remain where it is. Augustine, of course, had in mind the necessary future: the obscene comes of itself, becoming just as present.

All of the above allows us to believe in V. Khlebnikov’s idea of ​​​​the existence of the “State of Times”. If this seems too solemn or incredible to someone, let him try to object to L. Carroll about the fact that “time is actor" After all, the person is above the state! And since it’s a face, then, at a minimum, you should be polite with it, which is what the authors of this book, dedicated to developmental psychology, do, i.e. human development over time. Outside the category of development, psychology as a science is hardly possible, since a person is never equal to himself. He is either greater or less than himself. He constantly has to overcome not only spatial, social, but also “chronological gaps and ditches” (G. Adamovich), to get out of the “chronological province” (S.S. Averintsev).

In the light of what has been said, all psychology should be developmental, or more precisely, developmental psychology. This is hampered by the fact that we have a very vague idea of ​​what age is, what the age norm is and whether there is one at all. “Norm of development” indeed sounds strange, since a norm is akin to a border, a limit, a standard, finally. But what is it capable of? human body, no one has yet defined, and no one has refuted this long-standing assertion of Spinoza. It is much more productive to talk about development as a norm.

We, of course, know that there is astronomical time, there is meaningful time, the measure of which is our thoughts and actions, there is psychological time, in which the whole person is present with all his past, present and future, there is spiritual time, the dominant of which is a person’s ideas about eternity, about meaning, about values. Psychological and spiritual time are perpendicular to continuous astronomical and discrete event time. Whether the inner man is tall or short is built on this perpendicular axis(s). The height depends on whether a person finds himself at the intersection of many times or gets entangled in their networks. In the first case, he will be able to choose a meaningful vector for his further movement, growth, development, and activity; but the second will turn out to be a hostage, a prisoner of external circumstances. Of course, chance and fate play a significant role in human development, but even more important is one’s own effort. Not everyone gets to be at the right time, in the right place. I have already learned useful lessons for psychology from the works of O. Mandelstam. I will quote another from the poet’s essay “A Conversation about Dante”: “Dante never enters into combat with matter without preparing an organ to catch it, without arming himself with a meter for counting specific dripping or melting time. In poetry, in which everything is a measure, and revolves around it and for its sake, measurers are tools of a special nature, carrying a special active function. Here the trembling compass needle not only indulges the magnetic storm, but also creates it itself.” Humans also create similar tools, functional organs, and new formations. This, in fact, is the essence of development. O. Mandelstam, for example, knew how to hear time. He described its noise. A person is always in living, life time, which differs from the chronological time of life. Life time also determines the living space, the life world of a person, to which much attention is paid in the book. The dependence is, of course, mutual. The artist R. Pousset-Dart called one of his compositions: “Time is the mind of space. Space is the flesh of time." Together they constitute a chronotope (the term of A.A. Ukhtomsky), which is the result and condition for the development of conscious and unconscious life. The chronotope, like all living things, stubbornly resists conceptualization. His image was given by S. Dali in his flowing clock in the painting “Persistence of Memory”. He commented on it: “... this is not only a fantastic image of the world; These flowing cheeses contain the highest formula of space and time. This image was born suddenly, and, I believe, it was then that I wrested from the Irrational one one of his main secrets, one of his archetypes, for my soft watch defines life more accurately than any equation: space-time condenses, so that, when frozen, it spreads like camembert, doomed to go rotten and cultivate champignons of spiritual impulses - sparks that start the engine of the universe.”

The above images of time, space, and chronotope are not so easy to implant into the body of psychology, including the body of developmental psychology. Human development is not linear, not progressive. O. Mandelstam wrote that “As a prototype historical event- in nature there is a thunderstorm. The prototype of the absence of events can be considered a clockwise movement along the dial.” This fully applies to the development of culture, in which, according to Yu.M. Lotman, gradual and explosive processes are combined. The same applies to the development of an individual. If it happens, it is eventful, it contains unplanned thunderstorm events, explosions, ups, downs, new births, crises described by the authors. What has been said is as certain as it is difficult to study, since the development trajectory of each person is unique, unrepeatable, unpredictable. This is the complexity and the beauty of the science of human development is that, despite everything, it is still possible, which is well demonstrated by the book that the reader is about to read. The science of human mental development is presented in it as the result (of course, not the last) of the efforts of many generations of scientists who understood the drama and tragedy of human development, placing this understanding outside the brackets of the presentation of their results. The authors of this book followed their example. Tragedy and drama are still the prerogative of art. However, the reader will meet him in the book. But he will have to read a lot himself into the epic account of the course of development presented in it.

You can do this the way I did it, in these notes. You can (and should) do it your own way. It’s useful to try to recognize yourself in the authors’ descriptions. For my part, I will say that such recognition in developmental psychology is achieved more easily than in academic general psychology.

The book presents not only childhood and adolescence. It also presents maturity, which is not often found in our literature. When reading it, one should remember that the achievements of every age have lasting value. My teacher is an outstanding child psychologist. A V Zaporozhets cared about the amplification of child development and not advised to show unreasonable haste, to accelerate the child’s transition from one stage of development to another. We must also remember P A Florensky’s testament that genius is the preservation of childhood for life, and talent is the preservation of youth for life.

Doctor of Psychological Sciences, Professor, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education V. P. Zinchenko

We cannot provide the opportunity to download the book in electronic form.

We inform you that part of the full-text literature on psychological and pedagogical topics is contained in electronic library MGPPU at http://psychlib.ru. If the publication is in the public domain, registration is not required. Some books, articles, methodological manuals, dissertations will be available after registration on the library website.

Electronic versions of works are intended for use for educational and scientific purposes.

Biological scientist Pratik Gurkha believes that the Bitcoin price chart follows the reproductive cycle of bacteria. According to his observations, based on comparing the behavior of the Bitcoin rate with the phases of bacterial development, in the near future the Bitcoin rate will resume growth and reach $50,000.

Some traders have been wary of Bitcoin price predictions as of late, as well as different interpretations of technical analysis - and with good reason. Over time, the price of Bitcoin has shown marked unpredictability and volatility, and few crypto enthusiasts are able to accurately predict the behavior of this asset in the market. While there is no “right” or “wrong” way to conduct Bitcoin market analysis, trading experience, extensive financial knowledge, and/or cold statistics are certainly valued in this activity.

It is on objective observations and cold statistics that the assumption of interdisciplinary scientist Pratik Gurkha, interested in economics and innovation, is based. According to him, the price movement of Bitcoin can be predicted using the life cycle of a simple bacterium in a Petri dish.

Gurha's analysis is not far-fetched, although it is quite unconventional. Gurkha noted that the Bitcoin diagram resembles the reproductive pattern of a bacterium: lag phase (phase of delayed reproduction) - log phase (exponential phase) - stationary phase - die-off phase (logarithmic death).

At the first stage (lag phase), bacteria adapt to environmental conditions. The second is characterized by exponential growth (log phase): bacteria divide until they reach boundaries at which environment will not allow the continued viability of the population to be maintained. After this stage, existing bacteria feed on available resources (stationary phase) until exhaustion and death occur (die-off phase). It is noteworthy that Gurkha does not mention the last stage in the context of Bitcoin, as he believes that this will not affect the cryptocurrency.

The scientist transferred his observations to the Bitcoin chart and expressed them in a mathematical formula. Gurkha suggests that the price of Bitcoin follows exactly the same life cycle as a bacterium, and is confident that the price of the coin will continue to behave in a similar way in the future.

According to Gurkha's forecast, Bitcoin will no doubt rise to $20,000 again as the new bull cycle (exponential phase) begins any day now. Gurkha predicted that the highs of the new phase would reach $50,000, and future rallies would allow Bitcoin to reach the $250,000 mark. Unlike typical technical analyses, Gurkha used a completely different set of parameters, which, however, also indicated continued growth of Bitcoin .

The textbook for the course on developmental psychology (developmental psychology) reflects the full life cycle that a person goes through. Age-related patterns of development in infancy, early and preschool childhood, primary school and adolescence, adolescence, youth, maturity and late adulthood are considered. Options for personality development are traced depending on its orientation. Theoretical and factual material is presented in the traditions of the psychological school of L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontyev, D. B. Elkonina.
The manual is addressed to students of psychological faculties of pedagogical institutes and universities, but may also be useful to a wider circle of readers - school teachers, parents, young people interested in psychology.

Preface
A person lives in the space of time: in the past, in the present, in the future, in parallel time. Sometimes he turns out to be completely out of time. Moreover, no matter what time he is in, at every moment of time all three colors of time are present in him (is he present?). The present, without any admixture of the past and future, evokes fear and horror. Strictly speaking, every moment of human life is an elementary, of course, virtual unit of eternity. If this were not so, man would never have had the idea of ​​eternity. This means that a person carries with him all the types of time he has endured, mastered and overcome, as well as the types of space he has mastered. Their virtuality should not confuse them. They are perceived more real than reality itself. True, people still thought of giving eternity to the gods. O. Mandelstam once spoke about the internal excess of space. Equally, there is an internal excess of time in a person, even, perhaps, to a greater extent than space. When a person does not know how to tame it, excess turns into lack of time. But this same excess of time is collected in the “instant - duration”, in the “eternal instant”; thanks to it, “states of absolute temporal intensity” arise (G.G. Shpet), a “real future field” arises (L.S. Vygotsky), or a “world of monstrous actuality” (M.K. Mamardashvili), when “lasts less than a year century" (B.L. Pasternak). MM. Bakhtin called such states “a timeless gap between two moments of time.” Time has not only an astronomical, but also an energetic dimension: the gravitational forces of the past and the future are not equal. There is “a chain connecting with the past, and a ray with the future” (V.V. Kandinsky). Bl. Augustine said that only through the tension of action can the future become the present. Without the tension of action, the future will forever remain where it is. Augustine, of course, had in mind the necessary future: the obscene comes of itself, becoming just as present.
All of the above allows us to believe in V. Khlebnikov’s idea of ​​​​the existence of the “State of Times”. If this seems too solemn or incredible to someone, let him try to object to L. Carroll about the fact that “time is the actor.” After all, the person is above the state! And since it’s a face, then, at a minimum, you should be polite with it, which is what the authors of this book, dedicated to developmental psychology, do, i.e. human development over time. Outside the category of development, psychology as a science is hardly possible, since a person is never equal to himself. He is either greater or less than himself. He constantly has to overcome not only spatial, social, but also “chronological gaps and ditches” (G. Adamovich), to get out of the “chronological province” (S.S. Averintsev).
In the light of what has been said, all psychology should be developmental, or more precisely, developmental psychology. This is hampered by the fact that we have a very vague idea of ​​what age is, what the age norm is and whether there is one at all. “Norm of development” indeed sounds strange, since a norm is akin to a border, a limit, a standard, finally. But no one has yet determined what the human body is capable of, and no one has refuted this long-standing statement of Spinoza. It is much more productive to talk about development as a norm.
We, of course, know that there is astronomical time, there is meaningful time, the measure of which is our thoughts and actions, there is psychological time, in which the whole person is present with all his past, present and future, there is spiritual time, the dominant of which is a person’s ideas about eternity, about meaning, about values. Psychological and spiritual time are perpendicular to continuous astronomical and discrete event time. Whether the inner man is tall or short is built on this perpendicular axis(s). The height depends on whether a person finds himself at the intersection of many times or gets entangled in their networks. In the first case, he will be able to choose a meaningful vector for his further movement, growth, development, and activity; but the second will turn out to be a hostage, a captive of external circumstances. Of course, chance and fate play a significant role in human development, but even more important is one’s own effort. Not everyone has the chance to be in the right place at the right time. I have already learned useful lessons for psychology from the works of O. Mandelstam. I will quote another from the poet’s essay “A Conversation about Dante”: “Dante never enters into combat with matter without preparing an organ to catch it, without arming himself with a meter for counting specific dripping or melting time. In poetry, in which everything is a measure, and revolves around it and for its sake, measurers are instruments of a special nature, carrying a special active function. Here the trembling compass needle not only indulges the magnetic storm, but also creates it itself.” Humans also create similar tools, functional organs, and new formations. This, in fact, is the essence of development. O. Mandelstam, for example, knew how to hear time. He described its noise. A person is always in living, life time, which differs from the chronological time of life. Life time also determines the living space, the life world of a person, to which much attention is paid in the book. The dependence is, of course, mutual. The artist R. Pousset-Dart called one of his compositions: “Time is the mind of space. Space is the flesh of time." Together they constitute a chronotope (the term of A.A. Ukhtomsky), which is the result and condition for the development of conscious and unconscious life. The chronotope, like all living things, stubbornly resists conceptualization. His image was given by S. Dali in his flowing clock in the painting “Perseverance of Memory”. He commented on it: “... this is not only a fantastic image of the world; These flowing cheeses contain the highest formula of space and time. This image was born suddenly, and, I believe, it was then that I wrested from the Irrational one one of his main secrets, one of his archetypes, for my soft watch defines life more accurately than any equation: space-time condenses, so that, when frozen, it spreads like camembert, doomed to go rotten and cultivate champignons of spiritual impulses - sparks that start the engine of the universe.”
The above images of time, space, and chronotope are not so easy to implant into the body of psychology, including the body of developmental psychology. Human development is nonlinear and not progressive. O. Mandelstam wrote that “The prototype of a historical event in nature is a thunderstorm. The prototype of the absence of events can be considered the clockwise movement on the dial.” This fully applies to the development of culture, in which, according to Yu.M. Lotman, gradual and explosive processes are combined. The same applies to the development of an individual. If it happens, it is eventful, it contains unplanned thunderstorm events, explosions, ups, downs, new births, crises described by the authors. What has been said is as certain as it is difficult to study, since the development trajectory of each person is unique, inimitable, and unpredictable. This is the complexity and beauty of the science of human development; despite everything, it is still possible, which is well demonstrated by the book that the reader is about to read. The science of human mental development is presented in it as the result (of course, not the last) of the efforts of many generations of scientists who understood the drama and tragedy of human development, placing this understanding outside the brackets of the presentation of their results. The authors of this book followed their example. Tragedy and drama are still the prerogative of art. However, the reader will meet him in the book. But he will have to read a lot himself into the epic account of the course of development presented in it.
You can do this the way I did, in real notes. You can (and should) do it your own way. It’s useful to try to recognize yourself in the authors’ descriptions. For my part, I will say that such recognition in developmental psychology is achieved more easily than in academic general psychology.
The book presents not only childhood and youth. It also presents maturity, which is not often found in our literature. When reading it, you should remember that the achievements of each age have lasting value. My teacher, the outstanding child psychologist A.V. Zaporozhets, cared about the amplification of child development and did not advise showing unreasonable haste and accelerating the child’s transition from one stage of development to another. We must also remember the covenant of P.A. Florensky that genius is the preservation of childhood for life, and talent is the preservation of youth for life.
Doctor of Psychological Sciences,
professor, academician of the Russian Academy of Education
V.P. Zinchenko
SECTION I. PROBLEMS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 1. Life and work
Asset domestic psychology became an activity approach, according to which the psyche develops as a result of activity (life activity). Activity refers to the active interaction of an individual with the environment, aimed at satisfying his needs. This approach thus implies the inextricable connection of the individual with the environment and his active interaction how is it with her necessary condition mental development.
The activity approach in psychology was developed by L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontyev, S.L. Rubinstein, P.Ya. Galperin, A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonin, A.R. Luria and other researchers. The ideas of many famous foreign psychologists (K. Lewin, J. Piaget, E. Erikson, A. Maslow, etc.) are also based on the inextricable connection between the individual and the environment and imply his active interaction with it.
The activity approach turned out to be very fruitful in developmental psychology, which studies the complex processes of mental development in ontogenesis*. The greatest contribution to its formation was made by research devoted specifically to age-related development. He became no less productive in phylogenetic** research and zoopsychology (A.N. Leontiev, K.E. Fabry). Let us note that the historical approach to the development of the psyche, the study of the patterns of phylogenetic transformations, allows us to better understand the ontogenesis of the psyche, the features of its development at various age stages.
* Ontogenesis is a process individual development.
** Phylogenesis is a process historical development kind.