Russian principalities of the 12th and 13th centuries. Russian lands in the XII-XIII centuries. Rus' is specific. Appanage system in the 12th – early 13th centuries

By the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. Kievan Rus turned into a fairly developed state, largely thanks to the development National economy: a regular system of land use appeared, new agricultural crops were developed, and cattle breeding developed. Gradually, specialization of production and the process of division of labor occurred. Along with the villages, cities also developed: by the beginning of the 12th century. There were about 300 large cities in Rus', and their prosperity grew.

However, quite serious changes began to occur in the political life of the state. First of all, the 12th century. (its second half) was marked by a gradual decline in the power of Kyiv and the decline of the Kyiv principality.

Decline of Kyiv. Domestic politics in Rus'

There were several reasons for the weakening of the Principality of Kyiv:

• decrease in the importance of the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which had great importance for the regional economy;
• strengthening of the princes locally (the growth of their prosperity led to the fact that the princes no longer needed significant support from Kyiv);
• growing military tension in Kyiv. The city was constantly under attack from both nomads and other princes who wanted to achieve a great reign. Every year the situation in the principality became more tense.

Despite the increasingly difficult state of affairs, Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich (son of Vladimir Monomakh) made attempts to reunite Rus' under the leadership of Kyiv, which, however, were unsuccessful. Already by the end of the 12th century. the center of Rus' increasingly shifted towards the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Although Kyiv did not lose its political influence until the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, at the end of the 12th century. Vladimir represented serious competition to the old capital.

The strengthening of individual principalities led to the country becoming more fragmented; regions began to develop their own centers of power, uniting several nearby principalities under their leadership. By the end of the century, the economic and political life of Rus' also lost its centralization.

Development of feudalism in the 12th century.

In the 12th century. the formation process is actually completed social structure society, typical for the majority medieval states: society is divided into free and dependent people, social layers appear.

With the development of society and the economy, land interests began to play more and more importance. The princes, who previously owned most of all land holdings, gradually transferred part of their administrative rights to the lands of the boyars and monasteries, so that they could independently collect tribute from the territories entrusted to them, freeing the princes themselves from this. This is how a system of private, boyar and monastic land ownership began to take shape. Later, the boyars and monasteries, who received land rights, were able to expand their own farms at the expense of the princely territories; these new, larger farms increasingly employed peasants, debtors, or those who sought protection from the boyar. Feudalism developed.

Foreign policy

The main direction of foreign policy during this period was periodically attacking Rus', as well as attempts to conquer some nearby lands and establish strong contacts with the border European principalities.

Life and culture of Rus' in the 12th century.

Formed under the influence of pagan traditions and ancient life, as well as recent traditions accepted Christianity. Traditional Russian culture with all its national features and differences was just beginning to emerge during this period - new crafts, fine arts, and architecture were developing.

Main events:

• 1100 - congress of princes in Vitichev;
• 1103 - the beginning of a whole series of campaigns against (1103-1120);
• 1110 - the beginning of the creation of the “Tale of Bygone Years”;
• 1111 - victory over the Cumans at Salnitsa;
• 1113 - beginning of the reign of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125);
• 1115 - aggravation of relations between Novgorod and Kiev;
• 1116 - new victory of the Kievites over the Polovtsians;
• 1125 - creation of the “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh;
• 1125 - death of Vladimir Monomakh, the Kiev throne is occupied by Mstislav, the eldest son of Vladimir Monomakh (1125-1132);
• 1128 - Mstislav takes away independence from the Principality of Polotsk;
• 1130 - the first princely grants given to Novgorod monasteries;
• 1131 - beginning of successful campaigns against Lithuania (1131-1132);
• 1132 - death of Mstislav; this moment is considered the beginning of the period of fragmentation and feudal wars;
• 1136 - expulsion of Vsevolod Mstislavich from Novgorod, the beginning of the era of independence of Novgorod;
• 1139 - unrest in Kyiv, seizure of power by Vsevolod Olgovich;
• 1144 - unification of the Galician-Volyn appanages into a single Galician land;
• 1146 - reign in Kyiv of Izyaslav (1146-1154), son of Mstislav, whom the people of Kiev invited to inherit the throne after the death of Vsevolod; the beginning of a fierce struggle between princes for the throne in Kyiv;
• 1147 - the first chronicle mention of Moscow;
• 1149 - the struggle of the Novgorodians with the Finns for Vod; attempts by the Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky to recapture the Ugra tribute from the Novgorodians;
• 1151 - war of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Izyaslav in alliance with Hungary against Vladimir, Prince of Galicia;
• 1152 - foundation of Kostroma and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky;
• 1154 - reign

Rus' in the 13th century experienced a period of princely civil strife. While there was a struggle for power and land between the princes within the country, a significant threat was looming from Asia - the Tatar-Mongol tribes led by Genghis Khan.

Fight against the Mongol conquerors

The main events of the 13th century in Rus' centered around the fight against the Mongol-Tatar invasion. At first it did not affect Rus', but the princes agreed to come to the aid of the Polovtsian princes. Further events in chronological order are presented in the table:

Rice. 1. Khan Batu.

In fact, this is where the list of important events ends - the end of the 13th century did not bring any changes, Rus' continued to be under the rule of the Horde, who encouraged princely civil strife.

Fight against the Swedes and Germans

Almost simultaneously with the invasion from Asia, the expansion of the West into Russian lands began. So, in 1240, the crusading knights, who settled in the Baltic states, began to threaten the Pskov and Novgorod lands. The common idea - the spread of the ideas of Catholicism - was supposed to be supported by the united Swedish-German forces, but the Swedes attacked Rus' first.

On July 15, 1240, the Battle of the Neva took place. The Swedish fleet entered the mouth of the Neva, but at their request, the son of the Vladimir prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich Alexander came to the aid of the Novgorodians. He set out with an army and chose a strategy of surprise and speed of attack, since his army was inferior in number to the Swedish one. Thanks to the swiftness of the blow, a victory was won, for which young Alexander was given the nickname Nevsky.

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Rice. 2. Alexander Nevsky.

But this was not the end of Rus'’s struggle with the conquerors. this time the German knights, who had gained strength, came out against Pskov and Novgorod. Alexander Nevsky again came to their aid.

In 1242, on April 5, Russian warriors and crusaders converged on the ice of Lake Peipus. Alexander's army acted coherently and again won. Many knights simply fell through the ice under the weight of their uniforms. Subsequently, this battle will be called the Battle of the Ice.

From 1251 to 1263, the reign of Alexander Nevsky lasted.

Culture of Rus' 13th century

The culture of Ancient Rus' of the 13th century was based on the culture of East Slavic tribes. Many of its monuments were lost due to the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Some examples of architecture have been preserved - churches and cathedrals, as well as church paintings - icons - and literary monuments. At this time, parables began to be written, such a genre as hagiography appeared, and the most famous work of this period is “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik.

Rice. 3. Church of the 13th century.

The culture of Rus' of this period was influenced by nomadic peoples and countries of Western Europe. as well as Byzantium, which is associated with the adoption of Christianity. It had special features, such as a slow pace of development, the predominance of a religious worldview and reverence for the past.

The main political centers, such as Vladimir, Suzdal, Galich, Novgorod, were at the same time cultural centers. Due to the invasion of the Mongols and their constant destructive raids, many secrets of crafts, in particular, jewelry making, were lost. The population also decreased greatly.

What have we learned?

How did Rus' live in the 13th century and who were its main military opponents - the Tatar-Mongols and the crusading knights who wanted to introduce Catholicism. We also found out who ruled Rus' in the 13th century and which ruler saved the Pskov and Novgorod principalities from the Teutonic knights. We looked at how military events influenced the course of history, as well as the culture of Rus'. They established which cities were cultural centers and what trends prevailed in architecture, literature and painting. IN general outline examined the state of culture during this period and its main features.

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Under the dominance of a subsistence economy, each principality had the opportunity to separate from the center and exist as an independent land or principality. By the middle of the 12th century. on the basis of Kievan Rus, 15 independent principalities were formed, and by the beginning of the 13th century. – 50 principalities. Feudal fragmentation became new form organization of Russian statehood in the conditions of the development of the feudal mode of production, which became a natural stage in the development of Ancient Rus'. Titles of the Grand Duke in the 12th century. They named not only the Kyiv princes, but also other princes. The fragmentation process led to the fact that the principalities were divided into smaller fiefs. As a result of this process, the following became independent principalities: Kiev, Chernigov, Murom, etc. Each of the lands was ruled by its own dynasty - one of the branches of the Rurikovichs. The largest principalities were: Galicia-Volyn, Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod Boyar Republic. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality emerged at the beginning of the 12th century as a large feudal-boyar agriculture. There were many cities on its territory: Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Rostov, Suzdal - the territory was protected from enemies by forests and rivers. Profitable trade routes contributed to the separation from the Kyiv state. This principality strengthened under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei the Bogolyubenny, and under Vsedom the Big Nest. In the southwest of Rus' important role The Galician-Volyn principality played. There were fertile lands, rich cities, and significant reserves of rock salt. Princes Yaroslav I and Roman Mstislavovich successfully fought against the Polish feudal lords, the Polovtsians. The largest political center was the Novgorod Boyar Republic. The highest body of the republic was the veche, where the mayor and bishop were elected. The basis of the government's economy was agriculture. Russian lands in the 12th-13th centuries. were independent had various shapes management, and the economic basis was agriculture.

Option 3

Russian lands in times of feudal fragmentation. Rus' is specific

Starting from the 30s of the 12th century, Rus' irreversibly entered into a period of feudal fragmentation, which became a natural stage in the development of all large European states during the Middle Ages. By the middle of the 12th century, Rus' split into 15 principalities, which were only formally dependent on Kyiv. One of the reasons for this state of statehood in Rus' was the constant division of land between the Rurikovichs. The local boyars were not interested in the existence of a single, strong political center. Secondly, the gradual growth of cities and the economic development of individual lands led to the emergence, along with Kiev, of new centers of craft and trade, increasingly independent of the capital of the Russian state. Yaroslav the Wise, shortly before his death (1054), divided the lands between 5 sons. But he did this in such a way that the sons' possessions mutually divided each other; it was almost impossible to manage them independently. Each of the sons received lands that were supposed to ensure his existence. And Yaroslav hoped that his children would defend all-Russian interests. At first, the children of Yaroslav managed to rule in a similar way, but from 1068, when the united squad of the Yaroslavichs was defeated by the nomadic Polovtsian tribes in the battle on the Alta River, incessant strife began between the princes. They intensified even more when Yaroslav’s grandchildren and great-grandchildren grew up. In 1097, on the initiative of Yaroslav’s grandson, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, a congress of princes met in the city of Lyubech. Having assessed the disastrous consequences of the strife, the prince was established the new kind government: “Let everyone keep his fatherland.” This decision consolidated feudal fragmentation. The princes failed to achieve unity as a result of the congress. Only later, when Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) became prince, and also under his son Mstislav (1126-1132), state unity was temporarily restored. The Polovtsians suffered a series of defeats, which forced them to stop raiding. But after the death of Mstislav, fragmentation in Rus' finally prevailed. Feudal fragmentation weakened Rus'. However, this was a natural process that also had its positive aspects - cultural and economic. the development of various lands, the emergence of many new cities in them, a noticeable increase in crafts and trade.

Culture of Ancient Rus' (X–XIII centuries). The meaning of accepting Christianity. (Ticket 3)

Option 1

The culture of Ancient Rus' is a unique phenomenon. According to the researcher, “Old Russian art is the fruit of the feat of the Russian people, who defended their independence, their faith and their ideals on the edge of the European world.” Scientists note openness and syntheticity (from the word “synthesis” - bringing together into a single whole) ancient Russian culture. The interaction of the heritage of the Eastern Slavs with Byzantine and, consequently, ancient traditions created a unique spiritual world. The time of its formation and first flowering was the 10th - first half of the 13th century. (pre-Mongol period).

Let us note first of all the influence of the baptism of Rus' on the historical and cultural process. Christianity became the state religion of Kievan Rus in 988, during the reign of Vladimir I the Holy (980-1015). Princely power received new religion and the church that professed it received reliable support - spiritual and political. The state was strengthened, and with it inter-tribal differences were overcome. A single faith gave the subjects of the state a new sense of unity and community. Gradually, an all-Russian self-awareness took shape - important element unity of the ancient Russian people.

Christianity, with its monotheism and recognition of God as the source of power and order in society, made a serious contribution to consolidating the feudal relations that were developing in Kievan Rus.
The baptism of Rus' turned it into an equal partner of medieval Christian states and thereby strengthened the foreign policy position in the world of that time.
Finally, about the spiritual and cultural significance of accepting Christianity. It's huge. Liturgical books in the Slavic language came to Rus' from Bulgaria and Byzantium, and the number of those who mastered Slavic writing and literacy increased. The immediate consequence of the baptism of Rus' was the development of painting, icon painting, stone and wooden architecture, church and secular literature, and the education system. Orthodoxy, having introduced Rus' to the ancient Greco-Roman and Christian traditions, at the same time became one of the factors that predetermined the features of the economic, social, political, religious, cultural, and spiritual history of our country.

Pagan antiquity was preserved primarily in oral folk art - folklore (riddles, conspiracies, spells, proverbs, fairy tales, songs). A special place in the historical memory of the people was occupied by epics - heroic tales about defenders of their native land from enemies. Folk storytellers glorify the exploits of Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Volga, Mikula Selyaninovich and other epic heroes (in total there are more than 50 main characters in the epics). They address their appeal to them: “You stand for the faith, for the fatherland, you stand for the glorious capital city of Kyiv!” It is interesting that in epics the motive of defending the fatherland is supplemented with the motive of defending the Christian faith. The Baptism of Rus' was the most important event in the history of ancient Russian culture.

With the adoption of Christianity began fast development writing. Writing was known in Rus' in pre-Christian times (mention of “lines and cuts”, mid-1st millennium; information about treaties with Byzantium drawn up in Russian; the discovery of a clay vessel near Smolensk with an inscription in Cyrillic - the alphabet created by the Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius at the turn of the X-XI centuries). Orthodoxy brought liturgical books, religious and secular translated literature to Rus'. The oldest handwritten books have reached us - the “Ostromir Gospel” (1057) and two “Izborniki” (collections of texts) of Prince Svyatoslav (1073 and 1076). They say that in the XI-XIII centuries. 130-140 thousand books of several hundred titles were in circulation: the level of literacy in Ancient Rus' was very high by the standards of the Middle Ages. There is other evidence: birch bark letters (archaeologists discovered them in the middle of the 20th century in Veliky Novgorod), inscriptions on the walls of cathedrals and handicrafts, the activities of monastery schools, the richest book collections of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra and St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, etc.
There was an opinion that ancient Russian culture was “dumb” - it was believed to have no original literature. This is wrong. Old Russian literature is represented by various genres (chronicles, lives of saints, journalism, teachings and travel notes, the wonderful “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which does not belong to any known genre), it is distinguished by a wealth of images, styles and trends.
The oldest chronicle that has reached us is the Tale of Bygone Years, created around 1113. monk of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra Nestor. The famous questions with which “The Tale of Bygone Years” opens: “Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first prince in Kyiv and how did the Russian land begin to exist” - already speak about the scale of the personality of the creator of the chronicle, his literary abilities. After the collapse of Kievan Rus, independent chronicle schools arose in the isolated lands, but they all turned to the “Tale of Bygone Years” as a model.

Among the works of the oratorical and journalistic genre, the “Sermon on Law and Grace”, created by Hilarion, the first metropolitan of Russian origin, in the middle of the 11th century, stands out. These are reflections on power, on the place of Rus' in Europe. The “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh, written for his sons, is wonderful. The prince must be wise, merciful, fair, educated, lenient and firm in protecting the weak. Strength and valor, faithful service to the country, were demanded from the prince by Daniil Zatochnik, the author of the brilliant “Prayer” in language and literary form.

The unknown author of the greatest work of ancient Russian literature, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (late 12th century), also called for agreement and reconciliation among the princes. A real event - the defeat of the Seversk prince Igor from the Polovtsians (1185-1187) - became only the reason for the creation of the “Word”, amazing with the richness of the language, the harmony of the composition, and the power of the figurative structure. The author sees the Russian land from a great height, covers it with his mind's eye huge spaces, as if “flying with his mind under the clouds”, “scouring through the fields to the mountains” (D. S. Likhachev). Danger threatens Rus', and the princes must forget the strife in order to save it from destruction.
The art of Ancient Rus' is primarily architecture and painting. The Byzantine traditions of stone architecture came with Christianity. The greatest buildings of the 11th-12th centuries. (Desiatinnaya Church, which died in 1240, cathedrals dedicated to Hagia Sophia in Kyiv, Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk) followed Byzantine traditions. A cylindrical drum rests on four massive pillars in the center of the building, connected by arches. The hemisphere of the dome rests firmly on it. Following the four branches of the cross, the remaining parts of the temple are adjacent to them, ending with vaults, sometimes with domes. In the altar part there are semicircular projections and apses. This is the cross-dome composition of the church building developed by the Byzantines. The internal and often external walls of the temple are painted with frescoes (painting on wet plaster) or covered with mosaics. A special place is occupied by icons - picturesque images of Christ, the Mother of God, and saints. The first icons came to Rus' from Byzantium, but Russian masters quickly mastered the strict laws of icon painting. Honoring traditions and diligently learning from Byzantine teachers, Russian architects and painters showed amazing creative freedom: ancient Russian architecture and icon painting were more open to the world, cheerful, and decorative than Byzantine ones. By the middle of the 12th century. The differences between the art schools of Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, and southern Russian lands also became obvious. Joyful, light, lavishly decorated Vladimir churches (the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, etc.) contrast with the squat, solid, massive churches of Novgorod (the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa on Torg, etc.). The Novgorod icons “Golden Hair Angel”, “The Sign” differ from the icons “Dmitry of Thessalonica” or “The Bogolyubskaya Mother of God” painted by Vladimir-Suzdal masters.
To the number greatest achievements Old Russian culture also includes artistic craft, or pattern making, as it was called in Rus'. Gold jewelry covered with enamel, silver items made using filigree, granulation or niello techniques, patterned decoration of weapons - all this testifies to the high skill and taste of ancient Russian artisans.

Work plan.

I .Introduction.

II .Russian lands and principalities in XII-XIII centuries.

1. The causes and essence of state fragmentation. Socio-political and cultural characteristics of Russian lands during the period of fragmentation.

§ 1. The feudal fragmentation of Rus' is a natural stage in the development of Russian society and the state.

§ 2. Economic and socio-political reasons for the fragmentation of Russian lands.

§ 3. Vladimir-Suzdal principality as one of the types of feudal state entities in Rus' XII-XIII centuries.

§ 4 Features of the geographical location, natural and climatic conditions of the Vladimir-Suzdal land.

§ 5. Features of socio-political and cultural development Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

2. The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' and its consequences. Rus' and the Golden Horde.

§ 1. Originality historical development and the way of life of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia.

§ 2. Batya’s invasion and the formation of the Golden Horde.

§ 3. Mongol-Tatar yoke and its influence on ancient Russian history.

3. The struggle of Rus' against the aggression of the German and Swedish conquerors. Alexander Nevskiy.

§ 1. Expansion to the East and West European countries and religious and political organizations at the beginning of the 13th century.

§ 2. Historical significance of the military victories of Prince Alexander Nevsky (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice).

III . Conclusion

I . INTRODUCTION

XII-XIII centuries, which will be discussed in this test work, barely visible in the fog of the past. In order to understand and understand the events of this most difficult era in the history of medieval Rus', it is necessary to get acquainted with the monuments of ancient Russian literature, study fragments of medieval chronicles and chronicles, and read the works of historians relating to this period. It is historical documents that help us see in history not a simple set of dry facts, but a highly complex science, the achievements of which play an important role in the further development of society, allowing us to better understand major events national history.

Consider the reasons that determined feudal fragmentation - the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation on the territory of Ancient Rus' of practically independent, independent state entities on the territory of Ancient Russia; find out why it became possible Tatar-Mongol yoke on Russian soil, and how the dominance of the conquerors was manifested for more than two centuries in the field of economic, political and cultural life, and what consequences it had for the future historical development of Rus' - this is the main task of this work.

The 13th century, rich in tragic events, still excites and attracts the attention of historians and writers. After all, this century is called the “dark period” of Russian history.

However, its beginning was bright and calm. The huge country, larger in size than any European state, was full of young creative force. The proud and strong people who inhabited it did not yet know the oppressive weight of the foreign yoke, did not know the humiliating inhumanity of serfdom.

The world in their eyes was simple and whole. They did not yet know the destructive power of gunpowder. Distance was measured by the swing of arms or the flight of an arrow, and time by the change of winter and summer. The rhythm of their life was leisurely and measured.

At the beginning of the 12th century, axes were knocking all over Rus', new cities and villages were growing. Rus' was a country of craftsmen. Here they knew how to weave the finest lace and build skyward cathedrals, forge reliable, sharp swords and paint the heavenly beauty of angels.

Rus' was a crossroads of peoples. In the squares of Russian cities one could meet Germans and Hungarians, Poles and Czechs, Italians and Greeks, Polovtsians and Swedes... Many were surprised at how quickly the “Russians” assimilated the achievements of neighboring peoples, applied them to their needs, and enriched their own ancient and unique culture.

At the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' was one of the most prominent states in Europe. The power and wealth of the Russian princes were known throughout Europe.

But suddenly a thunderstorm approached the Russian land - a hitherto unknown terrible enemy. The Mongol-Tatar yoke fell heavily on the shoulders of the Russian people. The exploitation of the conquered peoples by the Mongol khans was ruthless and comprehensive. Simultaneously with the invasion from the East, Rus' was faced with another terrible disaster - the expansion of the Livonian Order, its attempt to impose Catholicism on the Russian people. In this difficult historical era, the heroism and love of freedom of our people manifested themselves with particular force, people rose to the occasion, whose names were forever preserved in the memory of posterity.

II . RUSSIAN LANDS AND PRINCIPALITIES IN XII-XIII BB.

1. CAUSES AND ESSENCE OF STATE Fragmentation. SOCIO-POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RUSSIAN LANDS

PERIOD OF FRAGRANCE.

§ 1. FEUDAL Fragmentation of Rus' – A LEGAL STAGE

DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN SOCIETY AND STATE

Since the 30s of the 12th century, the process of feudal fragmentation began in Rus'. Feudal fragmentation is an inevitable stage in the evolution of feudal society, the basis of which is the natural economy with its isolation and isolation.

The system of natural economy that had developed by this time contributed to the isolation from each other of all individual economic units (family, community, inheritance, land, principality), each of which became self-sufficient, consuming all the product it produced. There was practically no exchange of goods in this situation.

Within the framework of a single Russian state, over the course of three centuries, independent economic regions emerged, new cities grew, large patrimonial farms and the estates of many monasteries and churches arose and developed. Feudal clans grew and united - the boyars with their vassals, the rich elite of the cities, church hierarchs. The nobility arose, the basis of whose life was service to the overlord in exchange for a land grant for the duration of this service. The huge Kievan Rus with its superficial political cohesion, necessary, first of all, for defense against an external enemy, for organizing distant conquests, now no longer met the needs of large cities with their branched feudal hierarchy, developed trade and craft layers, and the needs of patrimonial lands.

The need to unite all forces against the Polovtsian danger and the powerful will of the great princes - Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav - temporarily slowed down the inevitable process of fragmentation of Kievan Rus, but then it resumed with renewed vigor. “The whole Russian land was in disarray,” as the chronicle says.

From the point of view of general historical development, the political fragmentation of Rus' is a natural stage on the path to the future centralization of the country, future economic and political takeoff on a new civilizational basis.

Europe also did not escape the collapse of early medieval states, fragmentation and local wars. Then the education process developed here nation states secular type, which still exist today. Ancient Rus', having gone through a period of collapse, could have come to a similar result. However, the Mongol-Tatar invasion disrupted this natural development of political life in Rus' and threw it back.

§ 2. ECONOMIC AND SOCIO-POLITICAL REASONS

Fragmentation of the Russian lands

We can highlight the economic and socio-political reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus':

1.Economic reasons:

The growth and development of feudal boyar land ownership, the expansion of estates by seizing the lands of community members, purchasing land, etc. All this led to increased economic power and independence of the boyars and, ultimately, to an aggravation of contradictions between the boyars and the Grand Duke of Kyiv. The boyars were interested in such princely power that could provide them with military and legal protection, in particular in connection with the growing resistance of the townspeople, the smerds, to contribute to the seizure of their lands and increased exploitation.

The dominance of subsistence farming and the lack of economic ties contributed to the creation of relatively small boyar worlds and the separatism of local boyar unions.

In the 12th century, trade routes began to bypass Kyiv; the “route from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which once united the Slavic tribes around itself, gradually lost its former significance, because European merchants, as well as Novgorodians, were increasingly attracted to Germany, Italy, and the Middle East.

2. Socio-political reasons :

Strengthening the power of individual princes;

Weakening influence of the Grand Duke of Kyiv;

Princely strife; they were based on the Yaroslav appanage system itself, which could no longer satisfy the expanded Rurik family. There was no clear, precise order either in the distribution of inheritances or in their inheritance. After the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv, the “table”, according to existing law, went not to his son, but to the eldest prince in the family. At the same time, the principle of seniority came into conflict with the principle of “fatherland”: when the prince-brothers moved from one “table” to another, some of them did not want to change their homes, while others rushed to the Kyiv “table” over the heads of their older brothers. Thus, the continued order of inheritance of “tables” created the preconditions for internecine conflicts. In the middle of the 12th century, civil strife reached unprecedented severity, and the number of participants increased many times as a result of the fragmentation of the princely possessions. At that time in Rus' there were 15 principalities and separate lands. In the next century, on the eve of Batu’s invasion, it was already 50.

The growth and strengthening of cities as new political and cultural centers can also be considered the reason for the further fragmentation of Rus', although some historians, on the contrary, regard the development of cities as a consequence of this process.

The fight against nomads also weakened the Principality of Kiev and slowed down its progress; in Novgorod and Suzdal it was much calmer.

To summarize the above, it should be noted that feudal fragmentation in Rus' in the 12th-13th centuries was a natural phenomenon associated with the peculiarities of the formation of the feudal system. Despite the progressiveness of this process, feudal fragmentation had a significant negative aspect: constant strife between the princes depleted the strength of the Russian lands, weakening them in the face of external danger, in particular the approaching Mongol-Tatar invasion.

§ 3. VLADIMIRO-SUZDAL PRINCIPALITY AS ONE OF THE TYPES

FEUDAL STATE FORMATIONS IN Rus'.

In the middle of the 12th century, the once united Kiev state broke up into a number of independent lands and principalities. This collapse occurred under the influence of the feudal mode of production. The external defense of the Russian land was especially weakened. The princes of individual principalities pursued their own separate policies, considering primarily the interests of the local feudal nobility and entered into endless internecine wars. This led to the loss of centralized control and to a severe weakening of the state as a whole.

Further processes of feudalization, which continued in the Russian lands, the specifics of local conditions, the peculiarities of the geographical location, and socio-economic development determined Various types political power in the Russian lands, identified three main political centers: in the southwest - the Galician-Volyn principality; in the northeast - the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and Novgorod land in the northwest. These three feudal formations differed among themselves in the degree of influence of princely power and the role of the feudal aristocracy, as well as the degree of development of one of the forms of feudal land ownership(patrimonies and estates), the impact of external factors on internal political life and played a major role in the history of Rus' in the 12th-13th centuries.

A feudal veche republic was established in Novgorod the Great. In the Galician-Volyn lands there was conflict type authorities. The political system of North-Eastern Rus' gravitated towards the princely monarchy.

Gradually, the center of economic and political life moved northeast to the Upper Volga basin. Here the strong Vladimir-Suzdal principality was formed - later the dominant territory of North-Eastern Rus', it became the center of the unification of Russian lands. During the period of feudal fragmentation (after the 30s of the 12th century), it acted as a competitor to Kyiv.

§ 4. FEATURES OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION, NATURAL

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF THE VLADIMIRO-SUZDAL LAND.

For many centuries, North-Eastern Rus' was a wild outskirts. Fertile soils, rich forests, many rivers and lakes created favorable conditions for the development of agriculture, cattle breeding and crafts. Trade routes to the south, east and west passed here, which led to the development of trade. It was also important that the northeastern lands were well protected by forests and rivers from the raids of nomads. The forest thickets of this land were so vast that in the 13th century, two princely armies going out to battle got lost and did not find each other. It was the land of the rebellious Vyatichi tribe.

In the northeast of modern Moscow, where the cities of Vladimir and Suzdal are located, the forests thinned out, wide open spaces appeared - the lands of the so-called opolya began, the edges of a giant forest. Nature has created a miracle here. As is known, this territory is located in the non-chernozem zone. The soils here are podzolic and relatively poor. But it is in the opole region that they are suddenly replaced by thick black soils.

In the XI-XIII centuries, a stream of settlers moved here. In search of fertile land, Novgorodians went to North-Eastern Rus'. Fleeing from the raids of nomads, the inhabitants of the Dnieper region moved to these places protected by forests. But colonization was also caused by other reasons. Farming techniques were primitive, and population growth required the development of new lands. This pushed farmers to search for a better life in the Northeast, where feudal land ownership appeared only in the second half of the 12th century.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality covered the area between the Oka and Volga rivers. On its territory lay the route from White Lake along the Sheksna to the Volga. The principality was connected not only with Novgorod trade, which already meant a lot, but also with European trade, and along the Volga with the Caspian Sea, Central Asia, the Celestial Empire, and Byzantium. The route led along the Moscow River to Kolomna, along the Oka to the Volga and along the Klyazma to the Volga.

Gradually, large urban centers emerged here: Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Murom, Ryazan. Under Vladimir Monomakh, the cities of Vladimir and Pereyaslavl were built.

§ 5. FEATURES OF SOCIO-POLITICAL AND CULTURAL

DEVELOPMENT OF THE VLADIMIRO-SUZDAL PRINCIPALITY.

The political system of North-Eastern Rus' gravitated towards the princely monarchy.

In 1125 Suzdal prince became younger son Monomakh Yuri, for his thirst for power, received the nickname Dolgoruky for his military activity. Under Prince Yuri, the principality separated from Kyiv and became a vast, independent state. Its first princes managed to form a large princely domain, from which they provided land for serving boyars and nobles, creating for themselves a strong social support in their person.

A significant part of the lands of the principality was developed during the process of colonization and was the property of the prince. The prince did not experience strong economic competition from the boyar families. The old boyar aristocracy and large land estates were absent in the principality. The main form of feudal land tenure here became local land tenure (conditional tenure assigned for service)

Supreme power belonged to the prince, who had the title of great. The existing bodies of power and administration were similar to those that existed in the early feudal monarchies: the princely council, the veche, feudal congresses, governors and volostels. A palace-patrimonial system of governance was in effect.

Yuri Dolgoruky constantly fought with Volga Bulgaria and fought with Novgorod for influence on the border lands. He energetically supported the colonization of undeveloped lands: he built cities, erected and decorated churches and monasteries. Moscow was mentioned for the first time under him.

When Yuri was still reigning in Kyiv, his son Andrei voluntarily left for the north, taking with him the miraculous icon of the Mother of God, which later became a shrine of the Vladimir land. Prince Andrei, contrary to all traditions, moved the princely throne to Vladimir, and next to it, in the village of Bogolyubovo, he built himself a residence. Based on the name of the village, Andrei received the nickname Bogolyubsky.

He continued his father's policy aimed at expanding the principality: he fought with Novgorod and Volga Bulgaria. At the same time, he strove to elevate his principality over other Russian lands, went to Kyiv, and took it. Andrei Bogolyubsky pursued a tough policy towards the boyars in his principality. Attacking their rights and privileges, he brutally dealt with the rebellious, expelled them from the principality, and deprived them of their estates.

During Andrei's reign, new trends in the relationship between the prince and the squad became especially pronounced. In the Northeast, warriors began to gradually turn into princely servants. Not trusting the older squad, the prince increasingly sought to rely on the younger squad. It is characteristic that they were increasingly called nobles: not the prince’s vassals, but his servants. The famous Russian historian S.M. Solovyov wrote: “Andrei changes his treatment of the younger princes and relatives; the latter were amazed at this change, realized the danger to themselves from it and armed themselves against the novelty. “We recognized you as elder,” they said to Andrei, “and you treat us not as relatives, but as assistants."¹ Andrei's autocracy became unbearable for his subjects and associates. A serious conflict was brewing between Andrei Bogolyubsky and the boyars. In 1174, conspirators killed the prince. After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, strife began. In the end, Vsevolod, nicknamed the Big Nest, became the prince.

The years of Vsevolod's reign were marked by the internal and external strengthening of the principality, the establishment and further development of the traditions of princely autocracy. Strong princely power, based on the support of small and medium-sized military servants and urban communities, contributed to the formation of a unified and strong state, economic and cultural growth. The authority of the principality in relations with other Russian lands and neighboring states increased.

Vsevolod was the first of the Russian princes to officially accept the title of Grand Duke. Under him, the Vladimir-Suzdal land began to dominate among other principalities. Vsevolod cruelly punished the rebellious boyars. During his reign, Ryazan was captured. Vsevolod interfered in the affairs of Novgorod, he was feared in Kyiv. After the death of the prince, his sons divided the principalities into parts and waged strife. The Vladimir-Suzdal land broke up into a number of inheritances that went to the sons of Vsevolod. Campaigns against Volga Bulgaria, the fight against Mordovian tribes eastern borders, foundation at the mouth of the Oka River fortress Nizhny Novgorod- these are the main points in the history of the principality during this period.

Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' became one of the most advanced and powerful Russian lands in economic, military and cultural terms.

The culture of North-Eastern Rus' was formed on the basis of ancient Slavic culture. It reflected the traditions of the Vyatichi - Slavic tribes. Various cultural influences and traditions merged and melted under the influence of general political and socio-economic relations. The culture of North-Eastern Rus' was associated with the flourishing of trade and crafts, the development of interstate relations and trade ties.

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¹ Solovyov S.M. “Readings and stories on the history of Russia”, M., 1989, p.222.

Christianity had a huge influence on culture as a whole - on literature, architecture, painting. At the same time, the existing dual faith determined that pagan spiritual traditions were preserved for a long time in the culture of North-Eastern Rus'. The harsh canons of church Byzantine art in North-Eastern Rus' underwent changes, images of saints became more worldly and humane. The most important cultural monument of that time is the chronicles - weather reports historical events. As Rus' fragmented, in Vladimir, Suzdal and others major cities In North-Eastern Rus', centers of local chronicle writing appeared. Chroniclers, as a rule, were literate, literary-gifted monks who knew translated literature, legends, epics, and described events and facts related mainly to the life of princes and the affairs of monasteries. Local chronicles were also written by order of the prince by close boyars or warriors. The chronicles of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' were distinguished by subjects of narration and style.

Architecture flourished. In the 12th century, single-domed churches were built: Dmitrovsky and Assumption in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl.

B.A. Rybakov wrote: “At the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, in connection with the appearance of tall three- and four-story buildings in cities, a new style of church architecture was born: churches stretch upward so as not to drown in the diversity of urban buildings. The walls of the churches were lavishly painted with frescoes depicting biblical and gospel subjects. In the dome of the temple, above the light belt of the windows, a huge image of Christ the Pantocrator “all-powerful” was necessarily placed, as if looking from heaven into this church at those praying.”¹.

New fortresses, stone palaces, and chambers of rich people were founded in Vladimir and Suzdal. The stone was usually decorated with carvings. Temples were placed on high hills, they were combined with the natural landscape. The city of Vladimir was surrounded by a stone wall with a gilded Golden Gate.

Icon painting also became widespread. An icon is an image on specially treated boards of saints revered by the church. In Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', the strict Byzantine technique of icon painting was influenced by ancient Russian culture, which introduced softness, depth, and lyricism into the ascetic Byzantine canons. The oldest monument of icon painting that has come down to us is the icon of the “Vladimir Mother of God”. It was named after the transfer of the icon by Andrei Bogolyubsky from Kyiv to Vladimir. One of the oldest surviving monuments of the Vladimir-Suzdal art of icon painting is the main “Deesis”. Written in the late 12th century, Deesis means “supplication.” The Oranta icon also belongs to the same school of icon painting. Dmitrovsky Cathedral in Vladimir was decorated with frescoes " Last Judgment».

The art of wood and stone carving reached a high level; it was used to decorate the palaces of princes and the homes of boyars. Russian jewelers, using the most sophisticated techniques - filigree, niello, granulation, filigree, created gold and silver jewelry that were masterpieces of world art. The magnificent embossing and elegant artistic decoration of the weapons placed Russian goldsmiths on a par with Western European ones.

¹ Rybakov B.A. “Kievan Rus and Russian principalities of the XII-XIII centuries,” M., 1982, p.377

Taking into account all of the above, we can conclude: the culture of North-Eastern Rus' on the eve of the Mongol invasion was at a very high level of development, not inferior to the culture of advanced European countries and actively interacting with it. Strike from the East Tatar-Mongol hordes, disrupted the natural development of the political, economic and cultural life of Rus' and threw it back.

2 MONGOL-TATAR INVASION OF Rus' AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. Rus' AND THE GOLDEN HORDE.

§ 1. ORIGINALITY OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND WAY OF LIFE
NOMADIAN PEOPLES OF CENTRAL ASIA.

In the 12th century, Mongolian tribes roamed the steppes of Transbaikalia and the northern part of modern Mongolia. Their main occupation was cattle breeding, supplemented by hunting. The Mongols did not know agriculture. They bred mainly horses and sheep. They lived in felt tents - yurts. Yurts placed on a cart were called tents. Such mobile housing was indispensable during distant nomads. As a rule, among nomadic peoples, old traditions and ancient patriarchal orders remain unchanged for a long time. Property inequality always arose much more slowly among nomads than among farmers.

The Mongols were no exception. In the 12th century they experienced the disintegration of the clan system. The tribal nobility stood out - the Noyons and Bogaturs. They were surrounded by vigilantes - nukers. The nobility gradually took control of livestock and pastures. This was the main wealth of the nomads, in contrast to farmers, for whom land was the highest value. A type of feudalism was formed, which is usually called nomadic. Ordinary Mongols worked for nobles: they grazed cattle, sheared sheep, and made kumiss from mare's milk. In an effort to have as many livestock as possible, the Noyons were forced to develop more and more new pastures - the old ones were depleted. The traditional nomadic territories turned out to be too small for the expanding herds and herds, and inter-tribal conflicts began over pastures. These clashes escalated into bloody wars, accompanied by the extermination of entire clans and the conversion of captives into slavery.

It was at this time that the tribal system decomposed among the Mongolian tribes and private property appeared. A large number of horse herds and excellent pastures made it possible to stand out economically.

From the very beginning, the Mongol state turned out to be militarized. Nomadic cattle breeding led to depletion of pastures, and depletion of pastures led to the struggle for new pastures. Hence the seizure of the lands of foreign tribes, rapid movements over vast distances. From an early age, the boy was put on a horse and taught how to use a bow - as a result, he grew up to be a strong and courageous fighter.

In the second half of the 12th century, a struggle for leadership began between the Mongol tribes. Those who won subdued their opponents. The birth of the state was accompanied by wars between tribes and tribal unions, the rise of noyons, and their desperate fights among themselves.

During the civil strife at the end of the 12th century, the noion Temujin won. A congress of nomadic nobility - kurultai - proclaimed him in 1206 the great kagan of all Mongols and assigned him a new name and title - Genghis Khan. This kurultai played a tragic role in the fate of the entire ancient Rus'. Genghis Khan forcibly united under his hand all the Mongols, some neighboring tribes and, on the basis of tribal characteristics, created an army that had no equal in the XII-XIII centuries, during the era of developed feudalism, in the Central Asian states, in Rus' and in Europe. Temujin created a first-class army for his time. The entire army was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands. Ten thousand warriors made up the tumen. If every ten coincided with a family, then tumen was already a whole army, within which strict subordination of commanders along the hierarchical vertical was observed. Along with a clear organization, high combat effectiveness was ensured by iron military discipline. It was supported by merciless punishments for any minor offenses. Major crimes, acts of betrayal and cowardice were completely out of the question. There was a law in force in the army: if in battle one of the ten runs away from the enemy, then the entire ten were executed; if a dozen run in a hundred, then the whole hundred is executed; If a hundred run and open a gap for the enemy, then the whole thousand will be executed. Hence the army was strong and well trained.

The famous traveler and explorer of Central Asia G.E. Grumm-Grzhimailo wrote in his book “Western Mongolia and the Uriankhai Territory”: “Genghis Khan early realized that a small, but disciplined and abundantly supplied army was the most essential guarantee of military success, and the first his actions were aimed at creating a disciplined and well-trained army from the armed crowd, which before him was usually represented by armies of nomads, and, according to reviews of his contemporaries, he achieved amazing results in this regard, managing to instill in his warriors from the temnik to the private, that disobedience to high command is the gravest of crimes. This iron discipline, which forced people to defend the cause entrusted to them, sometimes to last person, Genghis Khan owed many of his victories.”¹

The main striking force of the Mongols was cavalry. Each warrior himself had to take care of feeding himself and his horse. And this left him no choice in the campaign: in order not to die himself, he had to rob. Mongol warriors used bows, sabers, and lassos. The reconnaissance was well done.

The Mongolian state-military machine began to work at full speed. In 1211, Genghis Khan attacked Northern China and conquered it within a few years. The Mongols used the experience and knowledge of Chinese officials and recruited Chinese scientists and military specialists into their service. The Mongol army was now strong not only with its powerful and fast cavalry, but also with Chinese siege battering and stone-throwing machines, and projectiles with a flammable mixture that included oil.

¹ G.E. Grumm-Grzhimailo “Western Mongolia and the Uriankhai region”, vol. 2, Leningrad, 1926, p. 442

In 1219–1220 Genghis Khan captured Central Asia, plundering it richest cities: Bukhara, Samarkand, Urgench and others. Then Mongol troops advanced into Northern Iran, entered Azerbaijan and appeared in the Northern Caucasus. There the Mongols broke the resistance of the Alans and approached the Polovtsian steppes.

§ 2. BATYEV’S INVASION OF Rus'.

FORMATION OF THE GOLDEN HORDE.

“In 1224 an unknown people appeared; an unheard of army came, godless Tatars, about whom no one knows well who they are and where they came from, and what kind of language they have, and what tribe they are, and what kind of faith they have... The Polovtsians could not resist them and ran to the Dnieper. Khan Kotyan was the father-in-law of Mstislav Galitsky; he came with a bow to the prince, his son-in-law, and to all the Russian princes... and said: “The Tatars took our land, and tomorrow they will take yours, so protect us; if you don’t help us, we will be cut off, and you will be cut off tomorrow.” “The princes thought and thought and decided to help Kotyan”¹. The hike began in April when the rivers were in full flood. The troops were heading down the Dnieper. Command was exercised prince of Kyiv Mstislav Romanovich and Mstislav Udaly. The Polovtsians informed the Russian princes about the treachery of the Tatars. Immediately after crossing the Dnieper, Russian troops encountered the enemy’s vanguard, chased it for seven days, and on the eighth they reached the bank of the Kalka River.

Decisive Battle between the united Russian squads and the Mongols occurred on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River, not far from the coast Sea of ​​Azov. The Russian princes suffered a crushing defeat. It was explained by the following reasons: separatism and political egoism of the Russian princes; lack of unified command; the panicky flight of the Polovtsian troops, who, with their disorderly retreat, upset the Russian ranks; Russian troops underestimated the enemy's strength, could not choose the right place for the battle, the terrain, which was completely favorable to the Tatars. But, in fairness, it should be noted that at that time, not only in Rus', but also in Europe, there would not have been an army capable of competing with the formations of Genghis Khan. The defeat at Kalka turned out to be one of the most difficult and tragic for Rus' in its entire history. A terrible danger loomed over Russia.

In 1227, Genghis Khan died. During his lifetime, he divided all the conquered lands among his sons. In 1235, at the kurultai it was decided to begin new trip to Europe, and the grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu Khan, was placed at the head of the army. In 1236, Batu's hordes defeated the Volga Bulgaria, subjugating the Bashkirs, Mari, and Polovtsians.

In December 1237, a huge army entered the Ryazan principality. After five days of siege, Ryazan was taken and the inhabitants were killed. None of the Russian princes sent a squad to help the Ryazan prince. Before the Mongols lay several roads into the depths of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Since Batu was faced with the task of conquering all of Rus' in one winter, he headed to Vladimir along the Oka, through Moscow and Kolomna.

¹Soloviev.S.M. Readings and stories on the history of Russia. "Russian Chronicle", ch. XVIII, M., 1989, p.148

Prince Yuri of Vladimir sent governor Eremey to Kolomna to unite with Vsevolod, the son of Yuri and Prince Roman. The famous Russian historian S.M. Solovyov writes: “The Tatars surrounded them at Kolomna and fought hard; there was a great slaughter; They killed Prince Roman and the governor Eremey, and Vsevolod with a small squad ran to Vladimir.”¹. Having defeated the Russian troops near Kolomna, Batu came to Moscow, took and burned the city, and killed the inhabitants. In February 1238, the capital of the principality was taken by storm. At the same time, separate detachments of Mongol-Tatars, scattered throughout the principality, captured Suzdal, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Pereyaslavl, Yuryev, Galich, Dmitrov, Tver and other cities. The inhabitants of these cities were mercilessly exterminated or taken prisoner.

On March 4, 1238, on the City River, a tributary of Molog, northwest of Yaroslavl, in a bloody battle, the army of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich suffered a terrible defeat, he himself was killed.

After a two-week siege, the Mongols took the small town of Torzhok and moved towards Novgorod the Great. However, 100 miles from the city, Batu gave the order to turn south. Historians suggest that the reason for this was the beginning of the muddy roads and, most importantly, the heavy losses suffered by the invaders in previous battles. In addition, the Mongols became convinced that the captured lands were of little use for nomadic cattle breeding.

On the way back, the Mongols besieged the small town of Kozelsk for seven whole weeks. At the cost of huge losses, they took possession of it and, calling it the “Evil City,” wiped it off the face of the earth.

In the fall of 1240, the Mongol-Tatars began an invasion of Southern Rus' and Eastern Europe. The South Russian lands suffered terrible devastation. Pereslavl and Chernigov were captured, Kyiv fell.

In 1241, Batu invaded Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. However, in the summer of 1242, he suddenly interrupted the campaign and turned to the Volga region. According to historians, there were several reasons for this: the great Khagan Ogedei died, and Batu hurried to the election of a new khan; the Mongols did not have enough troops to control the vast territory they had already conquered; Batu's army was too weakened by assaults, battles and losses.

Having reached the lower reaches of the Volga, in 1243 Batu formed here one of the largest states of the Middle Ages - Golden Horde. Tens of thousands of captives, primarily artisans, from Rus' and other countries were herded here, and looted goods were brought here. This is how the city of Sarai-Batu appeared - the capital of the Golden Horde (near modern Astrakhan).

§ 3. MONGOL-TATAR YOKE AND ITS INFLUENCE

ON ANCIENT RUSSIAN HISTORY.

Batu's invasion was not a simple predatory raid like the previous campaigns of nomads - the Pechenegs and Polovtsians - against Rus'. The Mongolian nobility sought not only to profit from the riches of Rus', but also to subjugate the Russian principalities to their power, to include them in the empire ruled by the descendants of Genghis Khan. The fragmentation of Russian lands played a fatal role in preventing the invasion of the conquerors from being repelled. Scorched, plundered, depopulated Rus' is forced to submit to its enemies.

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¹ Solovyov S.M. Readings and stories on the history of Russia. "Russian Chronicle", ch. XIX, M., 1989, p.155

A long era has begun in the history of Russia, which is characterized by the ancient concept of “yoke”. The Mongol-Tatar invasion was the boundary that divided the history of Rus' into two eras - before and after Batu’s invasion.

From that time on, Rus' began to lag economically and culturally behind a number of European countries. Most of the Russian princes and boyar warriors, thousands of peasants and townspeople died. Many artisans were taken into slavery. The secrets and techniques of craftsmanship have been lost, entire crafts have disappeared. Cities and villages were devastated.

The Russian people who fell under the rule of the conquerors had to learn to live in new conditions, under a new state system. It was announced to the princes and the population that from now on the supreme ruler of Rus' is the head of the Mongol Empire, and direct control is exercised by Batu Khan. The Horde khan was given the title “tsar” (previously, the Russians only gave this title to the Byzantine emperor). Each principality was now considered first of all a “tsar’s ulus” (the khan’s possession) and only secondarily as a “princely fatherland” (i.e., the hereditary possession of a prince). In accordance with the procedures adopted in the Mongol Empire, all the princes who survived the invasion were obliged to come to Batu and receive from him a label - a letter of grant, which confirmed the authority to govern the principality. Grand Duke of Vladimir, in addition. He had to go to pay his respects to the imperial court in Karakorum. The Horde rulers did not contribute to the centralization of Rus'. It was in their interests to incite hostility between the princes and prevent their unity.

To know how many people survived after the campaigns of Batu and Subedei, in 1248 the Mongols conducted a census of the population of Southern Rus'; in 1257, census takers reached the northern principalities. The result of these calculations was the imposition of a colossal tribute on the country - a way out. In addition to the “exit”, there were emergency payments - requests. If the khan needed funds for war, then he sent an unexpected “request” to Rus', which was collected as strictly as the “exit”. Enormous wealth was spent on gifts to the khan, his relatives and ambassadors, on bribes to courtiers and bribery of Horde officials. The payment of tribute was supervised by special Mongol governors - Baskaks.

From the bloodless principalities, carts with furs and silver and lines of slaves reached the steppe. Those who could not pay the “exit” were taken into slavery. After all, the amount of tribute was “distributed” between individual families.

Rus' not only paid tribute and supplied military units when the Horde declared mobilization. She was also included in common system communication routes of the Mongol Empire. The postal network borrowed from China was also introduced into the territories of the conquered principalities. At certain distances along the roadways, stables and inns were built. The surrounding population served there, fulfilling their conscription, and they also supplied horses. Such a point was called yam, and its servants were called yamchi. The task of the yamcha was to ensure the non-stop movement of messengers with the khan’s orders, to keep them ready and provide fresh, rested horses to passing ambassadors and officials.

Another means of keeping Rus' in subjection was repeated Mongol raids. According to historians, in the second half of the 13th century, the enemy invaded Russian borders fourteen times.

Batu's invasion brutally devastated Rus'. The papal ambassador Plano Carpini, traveling to Mongolia through southern Russian lands in 1246, wrote: “As we drove through their land, we found countless heads and bones of dead people lying in the fields.”

Which segment of the population suffered the most? Peasants? Of course, the Mongols did not spare them. But many villages lost in the forests might not even have seen the conquerors. Townspeople? Yes, it was very difficult for them. According to archaeologists, of the 74 cities that existed in Rus' in the 12th-13th centuries, 49 were destroyed by Batu, and 14 were depopulated forever, another 15 were unable to restore their former significance, turning into villages. According to the same Plano Carpini, in Vladimir-Volynsky “the churches were filled with the bodies of the dead.” Many of the survivors, especially artisans, were driven into slavery. Craft production, the secrets of which had been passed down from generation to generation for centuries, fell into decline. Entire specialties have disappeared. For example, the ability to make glassware and window glass, multi-colored ceramics and jewelry with cloisonné enamel was lost. Stone construction froze for half a century. But the heaviest damage was inflicted on the feudal lords: princes and warriors. It was they, professional warriors, who were the first to meet the invaders with weapons in their hands and the first to die on the battlefield. Nine of the twelve Ryazan princes died, two of the three Rostov princes, and five of the nine Suzdal princes. The share of dead vigilantes was most likely not less, but more. Among the Moscow boyars of the 16th century there is no one whose ancestors were known before the invasion. The composition of the squad has changed almost completely. The dead were replaced by completely different people - people from unprivileged sections of society. They were accustomed to being not the comrades-in-arms of princes, but their humble servants. Thus, the Mongol invasion sharply intensified the process of transforming the prince from first among equals into a sovereign master.

However, two and a half centuries of the Horde yoke were not a continuous strip of hardships and hardships for the Russian people. Perceiving conquest as an inevitable but temporary evil, our ancestors learned to benefit from close relations with the Horde. The Russians adopted some fighting skills and tactical techniques of military operations from the Tatars. Something came to Russia from the Horde economy: the word “customs” comes from the Horde word “tamga” (trade duty), and the word “money” itself came to us in those years from the East. Kaftan, robe, shoe, cap - these and other items of clothing, along with their names, were adopted from eastern neighbors. The Yamsk service on the roads of Russia outlived the Golden Horde for several centuries.

The mutual penetration of cultures was facilitated by mixed marriages. Often Russian young men - Muscovites, Novgorodians, Ryazans - married Tatar women. The merger of peoples did not occur, but such families became more and more numerous. Sometimes political calculations were at work - after all, intermarrying with the Horde nobility or even with the khan himself was considered extremely prestigious for the princely families. Later, after the fall of the Golden Horde, Tatar nobles began to move to Russia and laid the foundation for many surnames known in our history and culture.

It was with Batu’s invasion that Rus' began to lag behind a number of Western European countries. If economic and cultural progress continued there, beautiful buildings were erected, literary masterpieces were created, the Renaissance was just around the corner, then Rus' lay, and for quite a long time, in ruins.

The Horde yoke in Rus' undoubtedly played a negative role. This is recognized by the overwhelming majority of historians, publicists, and writers, although opinions have been expressed that foreign rule also had a positive impact on the development of Rus' - the strengthening there public order, weakening of princely strife, establishment of a Yamsk connection, etc. Of course, more than two centuries of dominance of the Horde led, among other things, to mutual borrowings - in the economy, everyday life, language, and so on. But the main thing is that the invasion and the yoke threw the Russian lands back in their development. The reason for this was not only the Horde tribute and all sorts of extortions that ruined the population and undermined the development of commodity-money relations, but also the constant devastation of Russian lands by frequent “armies” - punitive campaigns of the Horde, the destruction of dozens of cities, the death and slavery of thousands of people, the death of crafts, interrupted connections with Europe. Socio-economic and political development The Russian state was suspended due to the invasion of Rus' by Mongol-Tatar hordes, as a result of which Rus' was turned into an ulus of the Golden Horde. The church structure, faith, political orders, and order of reign were left the same, but the Horde rulers arrogated to themselves the right to judge the princes, approve them for great and appanage reigns, issuing them khan labels. The Horde rulers did not at all promote centralization in Rus', the unification of its lands, but, on the contrary, hindered this. It was in their interests to incite enmity between the Russian princes and prevent their unity. The insidious Horde diplomacy did not allow the rise of any principality and the growth of the authority of one of the princes to the detriment of others.

The Horde also controlled the foreign policy of Rus'. The goal of the Khan's diplomacy was the political isolation of Rus' from the Eastern European states hostile to the Horde - Hungary, Poland, Lithuania, and the Czech Republic.

Everything that happened during these years in terms of further development Rus', was done by the will and heroism of the Russian people, and was paid at a high price by them.

3. Rus'’S FIGHT AGAINST GERMAN AND GERMAN AGGRESSION

SWEDISH CONQUERORS. ALEXANDER NEVSKIY.

§ 1. EXPANSION TO THE EAST OF WESTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND
RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS IN THE XIII CENTURY.

Simultaneously with the invasion of the eastern steppes, conquerors from the west attacked Rus'. These were Germans - members of spiritual knightly orders and Swedes, who began the conquest of the lands of the Eastern Baltic in the 12th-13th centuries.

Eastern European lands have long attracted the attention of German feudal lords due to their profitable geographical location and your wealth. In the 10th-12th centuries, they began to seize the south-eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, where the Finno-Ugric (Estonian) and Balt tribes lived - the ancestors of modern Latvians and Lithuanians. The formation of a state has already begun among the Lithuanian tribes.

At the end of the 12th century. Catholic missionaries appeared in the lands of the Livonians, but the forced baptism of the local residents failed. Then the Pope organized in 1198 crusade against the Livs. Under the pretext of the fight against paganism and the spread of Catholicism, there was a real robbery of the local population.

In 1201, German and Danish feudal lords founded Riga and created the knightly Order of the Swordsmen to conquer the Baltic states, which mercilessly exterminated the Baltic pagans. In Rus' this order was called Livonian. In 1212, the knights subjugated Livonia and began to conquer Estonia, coming close to the Novgorod lands. At this time, the Teutonic Order moved to Europe, completely exterminated the Prussian tribes, and their lands were given to the Germans. In 1237, the Order of the Sword and the Teutonic Order united to jointly fight the Balts. In 1238, an alliance of German, Danish and Swedish feudal lords was concluded against Rus'.

When hordes of Mongol-Tatars fell on Rus' from the east, the crusaders considered that the time had come to launch a decisive offensive on the Novgorod lands. The Pope helped unite the forces of the Crusaders. The Order of the Swordsmen was annexed to the Teutonic Order, in addition, reinforcements were received from Germany and other Catholic countries.

For the ruling class of Rus', including the Russian Orthodox Church, the Germans posed a much greater danger than the Mongols. This was explained by the fact that the Mongols, being pagans, were religiously tolerant and did not interfere in the religious life of Rus', and the Germans threatened Catholicization. At this time, Alexander, the son of Yaroslav, the grandson of Vsevolod, ruled in Novgorod. His role in history is assessed ambiguously. Traditionally, he is perceived by domestic historians as a Russian national hero, a truly Christian ruler, ranked among the all-Russian saints by the church council of 1547.

But there is a completely different view of his actions, most clearly and consistently expressed by the English historian John Fennell. In his opinion, Alexander Nevsky pursued a policy of “strong ties with the Tatars from the Golden Horde and submission to any demand of the khan”; Acting decisively in relation to his western neighbors, he at the same time strengthened his own power, assisting the Horde in the defeat of their brothers. But, despite attempts to downplay the merits of the prince by some historians, the glory of Saint Alexander Nevsky is so great that he will forever remain in the memory of the Russian people as a wise ruler, a famous commander and a brave warrior.

“The Black Years” is the exact name of an entire era in the history of the Russian land, the times of the life and work of Prince Alexander Nevsky. After the hurricane invasion of Batu’s hordes, when Russian military strength was crushed and dozens of cities were burned, a system of heavy dependence on the Horde conquerors began to take shape, based on the fear of new invasions. At the same time, the western borders experienced strong pressure from the Swedes, Germans, and Lithuanians.

After such actions by the eastern and western invaders, the Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, and then his son Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky, faced the question: how to fight on all sides? With one hand they had to fight off their western neighbors, with the other they had to cajole the Horde, averting the danger of new raids on Rus' and keeping the younger princes in obedience. Analyzing the military-political situation of that time, it was necessary to choose the path for the further development of Rus'. And this path was chosen - the path of slowly gathering forces, the path of pacifying the Horde at any cost, and then turning their gaze against the crusaders and Lithuanian princes. This step did not reflect the mood of the Russian people, whose patriotism has always been very strong, but it brought to the Russian soil, although not stability, but time for respite. In such a difficult situation, many of the actions of the Grand Duke, merciful towards Rus' and inherently necessary, could seem like cowardly cruelty. So, for example, at the end of the 50s of the 13th century, the Tatar “numbers” began to enumerate the Russian population in order to collect regular tribute in an orderly manner. Novgorod the Great rebelled, opposing the census, but Alexander armed force suppressed the resistance of the Novgorodians, whom he had previously selflessly defended from all enemies. As a result, a census was carried out in Novgorod. Is it worth reproaching the famous commander for timidity? No. After all Grand Duke prevented a new pogrom of Rus', which could have destroyed the last region not devastated by the Tatars. Throughout his reign, Alexander Yaroslavich sought to prevent anti-Mongol protests, wanting to avoid new invasions.

Considering resistance to Horde rule useless, realizing that the time to overthrow the hated yoke had not yet come, he adhered to a policy of decisiveness and uncompromisingness in the fight against the Order and caution and humility in relations with the Horde. He knew how to be both menacing and submissive, desperately brave and infinitely humble, frowning menacingly at the West and smiling at the East. Already contemporaries were surprised by the complex, contradictory character of the prince, sometimes even reproaching him in their hearts for the fact that he “loved the Tatars more than measure.”

According to the Russian historian G. Vernadsky: “The two feats of Alexander Nevsky - the feat of warfare in the West and the feat of humility in the East - had one goal: the preservation of Orthodoxy as the moral and political force of the Russian people”¹. Alexander, realizing that militarily Rus' was still powerless before the Horde, bowed to the khans, giving North-Eastern Rus' the necessary time to restore the destruction caused by Batu.

Alexander Nevsky saw one path for Rus': the power of the great prince of Vladimir should become autocratic in North-Eastern Rus', although perhaps dependent on the Horde for quite a long time. For peace with the Horde, for peace on Russian soil, one had to pay. That is why Alexander had to assist Horde officials in the census of Russian lands for the regular collection of tribute. The forces to repel the Horde accumulated gradually, under the guise of unconditional submission, and, realizing this, Nevsky showed himself not only as a brave warrior, but also as an astute politician, deeply understanding the interests and needs of his people.

§ 2. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF MILITARY VICTORIES

ALEXANDER NEVSKY.

Among the events of military-political history Rus' XIII century, the military victories of Alexander Nevsky are most famous and occupy a special place in the memory of the Russian people, as they thwarted plans for expansion into Rus' from the West and its Catholicization.

The Swedes were the first to try to take advantage of the weakening of Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Novgorod was under threat of capture. In July 1240, a Swedish fleet under the command of Duke Birger entered the Neva.

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¹ Vernadsky G.V. "Mongols and Rus'". Tver, 2000, p. 38

Having passed the Neva to the mouth of Izhora, the knights landed on the shore. On July 15, 1240, a battle took place that went down in history as the Battle of the Neva. Secretly approaching the Swedish camp, Alexander's cavalry squad attacked the center of the Swedish army. And the foot army of the Novgorodians struck the flank, cutting off the knights’ retreat to the ships. The remnants of the defeated Swedish army went down the Neva into the sea. The brilliant victory of Alexander, nicknamed Nevsky by the people, was the first military success of Rus' since the invasion of Batu.

At the end of March 1242, Nevsky received news from intelligence that the forces of the Livonian Order, led by the master, were approaching him. The prince pulled his forces to Lake Peipsi. There, on Lake Peipus, one of the largest battles the Middle Ages, in which Alexander’s military leadership talent was brilliantly demonstrated. The battle took place on April 5, 1242 and was known in history as the Battle of the Ice.

The German knights lined up in a wedge, or rather, in a narrow and very deep column, the task of which was to launch a massive attack on the center of the Novgorod army. Russian army was built according to the classical scheme developed by Svyatoslav. The center is a foot regiment with archers advanced forward, and cavalry is on the flanks. The Novgorod Chronicle and the German chronicle unanimously claim that the wedge broke through the Russian center, but at that time the Russian cavalry struck the flanks, and the knights were surrounded. In a stubborn battle, the Russians defeated the knights; The order lost 500 knights, and more than 50 were taken prisoner.

Without exaggerating the scale of the battles won by Alexander Nevsky, it is necessary to emphasize their enormous historical meaning:

1. Expansion into Rus' from the West was stopped;

2. The dominance of the German feudal lords over the peoples of the Baltic states was undermined;

3. Rus' preserved the shores of the Gulf of Finland, access to the Baltic Sea, trade routes to Western countries;

4. The Knights of the Order were unable to enslave the most developed part of Rus' - the Novgorod-Pskov land, and impose Catholicism on its people. Alexander Nevsky acted as a defender of Orthodox Rus' from the Catholic West;

5. The victories of Alexander Nevsky strengthened morale and increased the self-awareness of the Russian people.

Great is the historical merit of Prince Alexander Nevsky as the organizer of the defense of Veliky Novgorod from the onslaught of the Swedes and the Order in the early 40s of the 13th century. Under the leadership of this prince, Novgorod was that part of the Russian land that retained not only some kind of independence from the Horde, but also obvious combat capability in the fight against the aggression of its western neighbors.

Alexander Nevsky acted as a defender of Orthodox Rus' from the Catholic West. This made him one of the main heroes of Russian history. The popularity of Nevsky grew from century to century. Peter I was an ardent admirer of his memory. Soon after the victory over the Swedes in the Northern War, Peter ordered Nevsky's ashes to be transferred from Vladimir to St. Petersburg and placed in the Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra.

We, his distant descendants, honor the memory of Nevsky, a wonderful patriot and commander. They write about him works of art And scientific works.

III. CONCLUSION

Russian history in the XII-XIII centuries was extremely eventful. In this difficult historical era, the heroism and love of freedom of our people manifested themselves with particular force, people rose to the occasion, whose names were forever preserved in the memory of posterity. This explains the great interest in the events of that time on the part of not only historians, but also writers.

The feudal fragmentation that began in the 30s of the 12th century did not mean collapse Old Russian state. It was just a new political structure. The ethnic and cultural unity of the country was preserved. The feeling of the unity of the Russian land, preserved despite the corroding rust of political fragmentation, princely strife, appanage habits and concepts, is clearly expressed in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”: “O Russian land, you are already over the hill!”

It was this fragmentation, disunity, the burden of mistrust and long-standing enmity between the Russian princes that became one of the reasons that determined the Mongol conquests. Strong , a well-organized army of the Tatar-Mongols defeated the military detachments of the Russian principalities one by one. The Horde did not contribute to the centralization of Rus'. It was in her interests to incite hostility between the princes and prevent their unity. The Horde rulers pursued a policy of deliberately pitting various princely groups against each other on the basis of their struggle for leadership in the political life of the Russian land, for the grand ducal label.

Suffering from the hated foreign yoke, Rus' began to lag behind most of the states of Western Europe, which did not know the trouble behind the bleeding Russian people. As A.S. Pushkin rightly noted, Rus', “torn to pieces and drained of blood, stopped the Mongol-Tatar invasion on the edge of Europe” and saved European civilization.

But such difficult trials that befell the Russian people in that distant scary time, could not but affect the future of Rus', on the path of its further historical development. Perhaps it was the more than two-hundred-year Mongol-Tatar yoke that determined the “Asian beginning,” which then turned into the most severe serfdom and autocracy unparalleled in history for Russia.

And yet, reading and studying the events of Russian history of the XII-XIII centuries, reflecting on the historical paths of development of Rus' in the terrible, cruel times of conquest and dominion of the Horde khans, who conquered half the world with the sword, exterminated hundreds of peoples and turned hundreds of others into their slaves, you can proud to note: only truly great people could have survived many decades of brutal violence, ruinous extortions, constant raids, accompanied by massacres, fires, and slavery. The Russian people not only survived, but also under the iron heel of Horde terror, despite the insidious policy of the khans aimed at disuniting the Russian principalities, nurtured their statehood, accumulated strength and retained the will to unity and complete liberation from the hated yoke.

Bibliography.

1. Vernadsky G.V. Mongols and Rus'. Tver, 2000.

2. Grumm-Grzhimailo G.E. Western Mongolia and Uriankhai region, vol. 2, L., 1926.

3. Isaev I.A. The history of homeland. M., Lawyer, 2000.

4. History of the Fatherland. Century XIII. For the Russian land. M., Young Guard, 1983.

5. History of Russia. Encyclopedia, vol. 2, M., Avanta, 1996.

6. Rybakov B.A. Kievan Rus and Russian principalities of the XII-XIII centuries. M., Nauka, 1982.

7. Sakharov A.N., Buganov V.I. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. M., Education, 2003.

8. Solovyov.S.M. Readings and stories on the history of Russia. M., Pravda, 1989.

Yaroslav the Wise tried to prevent civil strife after his death and established an order of succession between his children Kyiv throne by seniority: from brother to brother and from uncle to eldest nephew. But this did not help to avoid a power struggle between the brothers. In 1097, the Yaroslavichs gathered in the city of Lyubich (Lyubich Congress of Princes) and forbade the princes to move from principality to principality. Thus, the preconditions for feudal fragmentation were created. But this decision did not stop the internecine wars. Now the princes were concerned about expanding the territories of their principalities.

For a short time, peace was restored by Yaroslav's grandson Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). But after his death, wars broke out with renewed vigor. Kyiv, weakened by the constant struggle with the Polovtsians and internal strife, is gradually losing its leading value. The population seeks salvation from constant plunder and moves to calmer principalities: Galicia-Volyn (Upper Dnieper) and Rostov-Suzdal (between the Volga and Oka rivers). In many ways, the princes were pushed to seize new lands by the boyars, who were interested in expanding their patrimonial lands. Due to the fact that the princes established the Kiev order of inheritance in their principalities, processes of fragmentation began in them: if at the beginning of the 12th century there were 15 principalities, then by the end of the 13th century there were already 250 principalities. Feudal fragmentation was a natural process in the development of statehood. It was accompanied by a revival of the economy, a rise in culture and the formation of local cultural centers. At the same time, during the period of fragmentation, the awareness of national unity was not lost.

Reasons for fragmentation:

• 1) the absence of strong economic ties between individual principalities - each principality produced everything it needed within itself, that is, it lived on a subsistence economy;
• 2) the emergence and strengthening of local princely dynasties;
• 3) weakening central government Prince of Kyiv;
• 4) the decline of the trade route along the Dnieper “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and the strengthening of the importance of the Volga as a trade route.

The Galician-Volyn principality is located in the foothills of the Carpathians. Trade routes from Byzantium to Europe passed through the principality. In the principality, a struggle arose between the prince and the large boyars - landowners. Poland and Hungary often intervened in the struggle.

The Galician principality especially strengthened under Yaroslav Vladimirovich Osmomysl (1157-1182). After his death, the Galician principality was annexed to Volyn by Prince Roman Mstislavovich (1199-1205). Roman managed to capture Kyiv, declared himself Grand Duke, and drove the Polovtsians back from the southern borders. Roman's policy was continued by his son Daniil Romanovich (1205-1264). During his time there was an invasion of the Tatar-Mongols and the prince had to recognize the power of the khan over himself. After the death of Daniel, a struggle broke out between the boyar families in the principality, as a result of which Volyn was captured by Lithuania, and Galicia by Poland.

The Novgorod principality extended throughout the Russian North from the Baltic states to the Urals. Through Novgorod there was a lively trade with Europe along the Baltic Sea. The Novgorod boyars were also drawn into this trade. After the uprising of 1136, Prince Vsevolod was expelled and the Novgorodians began to invite princes to their place, that is, a feudal republic was established. Princely power was significantly limited by the city veche (assembly) and the Council of Gentlemen. The function of the prince was reduced to organizing the defense of the city and external representation. In reality, the city was governed by the mayor elected at the assembly and the Council of Gentlemen. The veche had the right to expel the prince from the city. Delegates from the city ends (Konchansky veche) took part in the meeting. All free townspeople of a given end could participate in the Konchan veche. The republican organization of power in Novgorod was class-based. Novgorod became the center of the fight against German and Swedish aggression.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality was located between the Volga and Oka rivers and was protected from the steppe inhabitants by forests. By attracting the population to desert lands, the princes founded new cities and prevented the formation of city self-government (veche) and large boyar land ownership. At the same time, settling on the princely lands, free community members became dependent on the landowner, that is, the development of serfdom continued and intensified.

The beginning of the local dynasty was laid by the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). He founded a number of cities: Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Moscow. But Yuri sought to get to the great reign in Kyiv. Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) became the real owner of the principality. He founded the city of Vladimir-on-Klyazma and moved the capital of the principality there from Rostov. Wanting to expand the borders of his principality, Andrei fought a lot with his neighbors. The boyars removed from power organized a conspiracy and killed Andrei Bogolyubsky. Andrei's policy was continued by his brother Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest (1176-1212) and Vsevolod's son Yuri (1218-1238). In 1221, Yuri Vsevolodovich founded Nizhny Novgorod. The development of Rus' was slow Tatar-Mongol invasion 1237-1241.