What year does the 18th century begin? XVIII: what century is this?

1. Features of the historical process in Russia in the 18th century.

2. Reforms of Peter 1 and their influence on the history of Russia.

3.The era of palace coups and its consequences.

4. “Enlightened absolutism” by CatherineII.

5. PaulI.

1. The 18th century is in many ways a turning point in the world and Russian history, stormy time social upheaval. It contained the grandiose reforms of Peter I, which radically changed the face of Russia, an endless series of palace coups. This is the time of the great reforms of Catherine II, the heyday of Russian culture, the time of sharp class battles (peasant wars under the leadership of K. Bulavin (1707-1709), E. Pugachev (1773-1775).

The 18th century was a time of heyday and then crisis of the feudal system. A period of decline of absolutism is beginning in Europe. In Russia at this time, feudalism was experiencing its apogee, but from the end of the century the crisis of the feudal system intensified, however, unlike the West, the crisis of feudalism was accompanied not by a narrowing of its scope, but by its spread to new territories. The 18th century was a time of constant wars for the expansion of Russian territory. Back in the 17th century, Russia included Siberia, Far East, Ukraine. In the 18th century, it included Northern Kazakhstan, the Baltic states, Belarus, the Baltic, the Black, Azov seas. The multinationality of Russia grew. In the 18th century, the population more than doubled (37.5 million people). New large cities are emerging. At the beginning of the century, Russia was experiencing an industrial boom. Serfdom continues to dominate agriculture. At the core social structure lay the class principle. The tax-paying classes were artisans, peasants, burghers, merchants up to 1 guild. The boyars are increasingly losing their leading positions. During the time of Catherine the Second, the first estate became the nobles, who received enormous benefits. The privileged classes also included foreigners, clergy, and Cossack elders.

In the 18th century, the nature of power changed. Under Peter I, absolutism (autocracy) was finally established. Subsequently, absolutism transformed into the regime of the enlightened monarchy of Catherine II. The 18th century was characterized by constant, comprehensive intervention of the state in the affairs of society; wars played the role of a catalyst for many processes - out of the 36 years of the reign of Peter I, Russia was at war for 29 years.

2. In the 17th century Rus' remained a deeply patriarchal state. The Russian Tsars Mikhail (1613-1645) and his son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) were people committed to antiquity, and Rus' needed modernization. The first attempts at reform were carried out by Alexei's son, Fedor (1676 -1682). Alexey had 11 children and was an exemplary family man. Under the influence of Sophia, the sister of Peter I, after the death of Fyodor, Peter I and Ivan V were proclaimed kings (Ivan V is the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich along the Miloslavsky line). Only in 1689 did Peter overthrow Sophia (she died in the monastery), and in 1696 Peter I became the sole king. He reigned for 36 years - from 1689 to 1725. He is considered the largest reformer of Russia.

Peter was a classic supporter of the ideology of rationalism. His ideal was a regular state headed by a sage on the throne. He believed that the state is the fruit of the creation not of God, but of man; it can be built like a house. Therefore, it is necessary to invent wise laws that will be implemented by the sage on the throne. The state is a tool to make society happy (an illusion). Peter wanted there to be clear laws for all occasions. Peter’s main idea is the modernization of Russia “from above” (without the participation of the people), according to the European model. From Peter to this day, the tendency to catch up with the West, from which we lagged behind “thanks” to the Mongol-Tatars, began.

In the first years, Peter looked closely and outlined a plan for reforms (amusing troops, amusing ships). He travels abroad, visiting France, Holland, England, Switzerland, Belgium, where he gets acquainted with the experience of Europe. As a simple soldier, Peter took part in two campaigns against Azov. Peter knew 15 crafts; he sought to adopt all the best in the West. It is difficult to compare Peter with anyone else. He was a genius, but there were no people of the same rank next to him.

He was a man of enormous height (2m 4 cm) and gigantic strength.

Peter's main reforms turned out to be in tune with the interests of Russia. The first recruitment was held in 1705, and the last in 1874. That is, the recruitment lasted 169 years.

The Senate, the main governing body of the country, existed for 206 years - from 1711 to 1917.

The Synod, the state governing body of the church, existed for 197 years, from 1721 to 1918.

The poll tax lasted 163 years, from 1724 to 1887. Before the poll tax there was a farmstead.

Peter's reforms were comprehensive and affected all spheres of life. Peter's system of government was distinguished by: unification and militarization (of the 36 years of Peter's reign, Russia fought for 29 years), centralization and excessive differentiation of functions. Under Peter, the book “Honest Mirrors of Youth” was published; it described the behavior of young people in different places and in different situations.

The reforms affected the management system. New authorities were created: the Senate, the prosecutor's office (1722) and the Synod, the institution of fiscals (Eye of the Sovereign - secret inspection).

In 1718, instead of Orders, Collegiums were created - collective management bodies (Commerz Collegium, Manufactory Collegium, Berg Collegium, etc.).

Peter changed the system of territorial management. He introduced the Town Hall and Zemsky huts - the main tax collectors. The town hall is in the capital cities, the zemstvos are in the localities.

In 1708, a regional reform was carried out, according to which 8 provinces were created, headed by governors general. After 10 years, the country was divided into 50 provinces. In 1720 Peter creates chief magistrate– body for managing territories.

The General Regulations were created - a collection of basic legislative acts.

Peter I destroys the Boyar Duma, but creates a bureaucracy - the Senate, the Synod.

His reforms in the fields of economics and culture were radical. From the beginning of the 18th century. Peter begins the construction of an industrial base in the Urals and a fleet. In the conditions of the Northern War, he carries out a monetary reform - reduces the amount of metal in money.

Trying to protect Russian industry from competition, he pursues an active policy of protectionism (protecting his industry through high customs tariffs) and mercantilism (encouraging his own entrepreneurs). The economy is booming. The number of manufactories increased 10 times. Russia's exports exceeded imports by almost 2 times (surplus).

Under Peter, the way of life and traditions of society changed radically. In 1703, he creates an ideal city - St. Petersburg - a model for the whole country.

Peter introduced a new calendar - from the birth of Christ - the Julian calendar (from the creation of the world). The New Year begins not on September 1, but on January 1. Peter introduced the celebration of the New Year (this tradition of bringing fir branches came from Peter). He created the first library, the first public newspaper Vedomosti, the first museum, and the first state theater. He developed the idea of ​​​​creating an Academy of Sciences, but Peter died in January 1725, and the Academy was created according to his project, but after his death.

Peter created a wide network primary schools, digital schools, a network of parochial schools, education becomes a priority area. The first specialized institutions appeared: artillery, medical schools, mathematical and navigational sciences (Sukharev Tower). Peter changes everyday traditions; he organizes assemblies (get-togethers) where young people play chess and checkers. Peter imported tobacco and coffee. The nobles learned the art of etiquette. Peter introduced European clothing and shaving of beards. There was a beard tax of 100 rubles (5 rubles could buy 20 cows).

In 1721, Peter took the title of emperor, and in 1722 he introduced the Table of Ranks (ladder to the future), according to which the entire population was divided into 14 ranks (chancellor, vice-chancellor, privy councilor, etc.).

Thus, Peter's reforms radically changed Russia. French sculptor Etienne Maurice Falconet captured the image of Peter in the form of a sculpture Bronze Horseman, in which the horse personifies Russia, and the rider is Peter.

Peter's ideal - a regular state - turned out to be a utopia. Instead of an ideal one, a police state was created. The cost of Peter's reforms was too high. He acted on the principle “The end justifies the means.”

Peter is a figure of enormous historical proportions, complex and contradictory. He was smart, inquisitive, hardworking, energetic. Having not received a proper education, he nevertheless had extensive knowledge in various fields of science, technology, crafts, and military art. But many of Peter’s character traits were determined by the nature of the harsh era in which he lived; they determined his cruelty, suspicion, and lust for power. Peter liked being compared to Ivan the Terrible. In achieving his goals, he did not disdain any means, he was cruel to people (in 1689 he cut off the heads of archers, he looked at people as material for the implementation of his plans). During Peter's reign, taxes in the country increased 3 times and the population decreased by 15%. Peter did not hesitate to use the most sophisticated methods of the Middle Ages: he used torture, surveillance, and encouraged denunciations. He was convinced that moral standards could be neglected in the name of state benefit.

Merits of Peter:

Peter made a gigantic contribution to the creation of a powerful Russia, possessing strong army and the fleet.

Contributed to the creation of industrial production in the state (a giant leap in the development of productive forces).

His merit is the modernization of the state machine.

Reforms in the field of culture.

However, the nature of their implementation was reduced to a mechanical transfer of Western cultural stereotypes and suppression of the development of national culture.

Peter's reforms aimed at the Europeanization of Russia were grandiose in scale and consequences, but they could not ensure the long-term progress of the country, because were carried out by force and reinforced a rigid system based on forced labor.

2 . With the light hand of V.O. Klyuchevsky, the period from 1725 to 1762. 37 years of our history began to be called the “era of palace coups.” Peter I changed the traditional order of succession to the throne. Previously, the throne passed through direct male descent, and according to the manifesto of February 5, 1722, the monarch himself appointed a successor. But Peter did not have time to appoint an heir for himself. A struggle for power between the two factions began. One supported Catherine I - the wife of Peter (Tolstoy, Menshikov), the other - the grandson of Peter I - Peter II (the old aristocracy). The outcome of the case was decided by the guards. From 1725 to 1727 rules of Catherine I. She was incapable of governing. In February 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was created, headed by Menshikov. Before her death, Catherine drew up a decree on succession to the throne (testament), according to which power was to belong to Peter II, the grandson of Peter I, the son of Tsarevich Alexei, and then Anna Ioannovna, the niece of Peter I, then Anna Petrovna and Elizaveta Petrovna (daughter of Peter I). After the death of Catherine I, Peter II, a 12-year-old boy, the son of Alexei, under whom Menshikov ruled, ascended the throne. In the fall of 1727, Menshikov was arrested and stripped of his ranks and titles. Under him, affairs were managed by the Privy Council, and Peter II's main activities were hunting and love affairs.

After the death of Peter II, Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740) came to power. This was the daughter of Ivan V, brother of Peter I. She was not distinguished by her intelligence, beauty, or education. She transferred control to Ernst Biron, Duke of Courland (since 1737). The reign of Anna Ioannovna was called the “Bironovschina”. During her reign, the autocracy was strengthened, the responsibilities of the nobles were reduced and their rights over the peasants were expanded. Before her death, Anna Ioannovna announced the baby John VI Antonovich, the son of her niece, as her successor. Biron was the regent under Ivan, and then his mother, Anna Leopoldovna.

On November 25, 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna, the daughter of Peter I, came to power, overthrowing the young Ivan with the help of the Guard. She ruled for 20 years - from 1741 to 1761. The cheerful and loving empress did not devote much time to state affairs. Her policy was distinguished by caution and gentleness. She was the first in Europe to abolish the death penalty. Klyuchevsky called her “a smart and kind, but disorderly and wayward Russian young lady.”

Peter III (Karl Peter Ulrich - son of Anna Petrovna - daughter of Peter I and Duke Karl Friedrich) ruled for 6 months (from December 25, 1761 to June 28, 1762) (born 1728-1762). His wife was Catherine II the Great. Peter did not enjoy respect either from his wife, or from the courtiers, or from the guards, or from society.

On June 28, 1762, a palace coup took place. Peter III was forced to abdicate the throne, and a few days later he was killed.

4. The era of palace coups ends, the Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II begins.

Like Peter I, Catherine II went down in history under the name of Catherine the Great. Her reign became a new era in the history of Russia. The beginning of her reign was morally difficult for Catherine. Peter III was the legitimate sovereign, the grandson of Peter the Great, and Catherine’s real name was Sophia Frederica-Augusta, the German princess of Anhald of Zerbst. She proved herself to be a patriot of the Russian land. For the first 15 years she did not play a significant role in government affairs. She persistently studied the Russian language and literature, the works of ancient authors, the works of French educators, the traditions and customs of the Russian people. Catherine's first steps spoke of her intelligence. One of her decrees reduced taxes on bread and salt. Catherine was the first to vaccinate herself against smallpox and saved the lives of thousands of peasants.

She was crowned in Moscow on September 22, 1762 (she awarded everyone who helped her - the participants in the coup received lands with serfs, ranks, money). Catherine was a typical Westerner. She tried to introduce the ideas of enlightenment and freedom into Russia. Catherine was a supporter of autocracy and an ardent follower of Peter I. She wanted to create a regime of enlightened absolutism in Russia - a regime in which the monarch cared about the freedom, welfare and enlightenment of the people. The monarch is the wise man on the throne. True freedom, according to Catherine, lay in strict adherence to the law. She came up with the idea of ​​​​limiting state intervention in the economy and defended freedom of enterprise. Catherine provided extensive benefits to manufactories. Its main goal is to strengthen the social support of absolutism by making the nobles the first estate. Until 1775, reforms were carried out spontaneously (spontaneously), and from 1775 the second stage of reforms began, which finally established the power of the nobles in Russia.

Catherine tried to develop new legislation based on the principles of the Enlightenment. In 1767, a commission was created to revise Russian laws, which received the name Stacked. The commission was composed of deputies from different class groups - the nobility, townspeople, state peasants, Cossacks. The deputies came to the commission with instructions from their electors. Catherine addressed the Commission with an Order, which used the ideas of Montesquieu and the Italian lawyer Beccaria about the state and laws. In December 1768, the Commission ceased its work due to the Russian-Turkish War. The main goal - the development of the Code - was never achieved. But this helped Catherine become familiar with the problems and needs of the population.

Catherine's greatest act was Certificate of Complaint to the nobility and cities in 1785. It determined the rights and privileges of the noble class. It finally took shape as a privileged class. This document confirmed the old privileges - the right to own peasants, lands, mineral resources, freedom from poll tax, conscription, corporal punishment, transfer of the title of nobility by inheritance and freedom from public service.

In the Charter, the cities were listed all the rights and privileges of the cities described by previous legislation: the exemption of the top merchant class from the capitation tax and the replacement of conscription duty with a monetary contribution. The charter divided the urban population into 6 categories and determined the rights and responsibilities of each of them. The privileged group of townspeople included the so-called. eminent citizens: merchants (capital over 50 thousand rubles), rich bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), and urban intelligentsia (architects, painters, composers, scientists). Another privileged group included the guild merchants, which were divided into 3 guilds. Merchants of the first two guilds were exempt from corporal punishment, but the latter was not. The charter granted to cities introduced a complex system of urban self-government. The most important body of self-government was the citywide “Meeting of the City Society”, which met once every three years, at which officials were elected: the mayor, burgomasters, magistrate assessors, etc. The executive body was the six-vocal Duma, which consisted of the city mayor and six vowels - one from each category of the city population.

The 18th century in the history of Russia is a cruel, even merciless century of the reign of Peter I, who decided to change Russia in a short time, a time of Streltsy riots and palace coups, the reign of Catherine the Great, peasant wars and the strengthening of serfdom.

But at the same time, this period of Russian history is characterized by the development of enlightenment, the discovery of new educational institutions, including Moscow University, Academy of Arts. In 1756, the first theater appeared in the capital of the Russian Empire.

The end of the 18th century - the heyday of the creativity of artists Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky, and sculptor Fedot Shubin.

Now let's take a closer look at the main events of the 18th century and the historical characters of that time. At the end of the 17th century, in 1676, Alexei Mikhailovich dies, and his son Fyodor Alekseevich ascends the throne. Peter Alekseevich, who later became Emperor Peter I, will become king in 1682.

In 1689, Peter, at the encouragement of his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, married Evdokia Lopukhina, which means he reached adulthood, as was believed at that time.

Sophia, who wanted to remain on the throne, raised the archers against Peter, but the rebellion was suppressed, after which Sophia was imprisoned in a monastery, and the throne passed to Peter, although until 1696 Peter’s formal co-ruler was his brother Ivan Alekseevich.

He had a rather remarkable appearance. His height was 2m 10 cm, he was narrow in the shoulders, had long arms and an unusual gait, so that his entourage had to not just follow him, but run.

From the age of 6, Peter began to learn to read and write and received an encyclopedic education at that time. Left without a father, Peter was engaged in self-education. With the permission of Princess Sophia, he creates a personal amusing guard, and later it was these two amusing regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky who played a big role when Peter came to power. In addition, the young tsar’s favorite pastime was shooting boyars with steamed turnips.

Gradually, the king also had “favorite” close associates, and these were different people. Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, or simply Aleksashka, the son of the palace groom, who from the position of the Tsar’s orderly became His Serene Highness, richest man; "German" (Dutch) Franz Lefort, who became the tsar's main adviser after his accession to the throne.

It was Lefort who advised Peter to establish foreign trade, but the problem lay in one of Russia's two famous ills - roads; Russia needed access to the sea through Sweden and Turkey. Peter I undertakes two campaigns against Azov, the second of which was successful and ended with the founding of the Taganrog fortress (on Cape Tagany Rog).

The war with Turkey, which began in 1697, showed that Russia needed loans, allies and weapons. For this purpose, the Grand Embassy was sent to Europe, in which Peter I was listed as a simple person - constable Pyotr Alekseevich. He was the first Russian Tsar to visit Europe.

Returning from the trip and plunging back into life in Russia, Peter hated it, decided to completely remake it and, as you know, he succeeds.

The reforms of Peter I, with which he began his transformations, were as follows:

• He disbanded the Streltsy army, created a mercenary army, which he dresses in almost European uniforms and puts at the head of foreign officers.
• He transferred the country to a new calendar, from the Nativity of Christ, the old one was carried out from the creation of the world. January 1, 1700 in Russia began to celebrate New Year.
• He obliged every 10 thousand households to build 1 ship, as a result Russia received a large fleet.
• He carried out urban reform - self-government was introduced in cities, and mayors were placed at the head of cities. Although this was the end of the “Europeanization” of cities.

In 1700, Peter I decided to start a war with Sweden, which ended in 1721. The Northern War began unsuccessfully, Peter was defeated near Narva, fled from the battlefield even before the battle began, but repented of this and decided to rebuild his army. Transformations were made based on the needs of the troops. For the war, guns were needed, as a result, the bells of Russian churches are cast on them, then metallurgical enterprises are built.

By the middle of the century, there were 75 metallurgical enterprises operating in the country, which fully met the country's needs for cast iron, almost half of the production was exported. It was necessary to arm the army, so weapons factories were built. In addition, Peter I orders the construction of linen factories. Shipbuilding, rope, leather and glass industries are developing. Galleys are built at shipyards, which played a decisive role in the defeat of the Swedes at Gangut.

Peter introduces military service - conscription - from 20 households, 1 person went to serve for 25 years; He also introduces compulsory service to the nobility for 25 years. These measures made it possible to quickly create a new army - 20 thousand sailors and 35 thousand. ground forces.

Peter I understands that Russia needs knowledge and money. To do this, he forced hundreds of young nobles and boyars to go abroad to study, and fiscal officials were assigned to monitor them; created a number of technical universities (Higher Artillery School), where Western professors were teachers.

In order to encourage not only nobles to study, but also ordinary people Peter issues a decree according to which everyone who graduates from high school will know foreign languages, will receive nobility.

To boost the economy, the king in 1718-1724. introduces a capitation tax (a male soul). The tax was heavy and exceeded the solvency of the people of the Russian Empire. This provoked an increase in arrears.

To stop thefts, because... Everyone was actively stealing, and the first thief was Menshikov; the Tsar orders not only the suspect, but also his entire family to be hanged on the rack. A number of additional fees were introduced - a beard fee, a fee for wearing Russian dress, and those who did not drink coffee were fined.

In order not to spend money on hired labor, Peter I introduced serf labor. Villages were assigned to factories, and artisans to cities. By decree of 1736, factory workers were assigned to manufactories forever and received the name “eternally given.” This form of labor hampered the development of Russia; they got rid of it only in the 19th century.

In addition, Peter I strives to develop trade. They impose customs duties on imported goods that are much higher than on exported ones. In the end, towards the end Northern War Russia had a developed economy, but it was a serfdom.

The reign of Peter was a time of transformation in Russia, a time of reform. In addition to those listed above, Peter carried out administrative and social reforms, and he also changed the judicial system.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

1. Peter divides the country into provinces, at the head of the provinces was the governor-general, whose only form of punishment was the death penalty;
2. Peter in 1711-1721. abolished the order system, created collegiums-prototypes of ministries. The head of the board was appointed by the tsar “according to intelligence, and not according to the nobility of the family,” i.e. for service you needed a good education;
3. In 1711, the Senate became the highest state body, which, in the absence of the Tsar, performed his functions;
4. At the head of all state power was Emperor Peter I. This title was approved by Peter himself in 1721 after the end of the war with Sweden.

Social policy of Peter I

In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was introduced, according to which all service people were divided into 14 categories, the lowest rank being ensign. Anyone who reached the 8th rank received nobility. The judicial system was changed - “they judged not with words, but with pens,” i.e. all court cases were formalized in writing and judged on the basis of written laws, which made it possible for judges to take new bribes.
In 1703, St. Petersburg became the capital of Russia, which was built on the bones of serfs. Peter I forcibly resettles about 1000 nobles to St. Petersburg.

In 1725, with the death of Peter I, the era of palace coups began. During the reigns of Catherine I, from 1725 to 1727, and Peter II, from 1727 to 1730, Menshikov performed the functions of emperor. During the reign of Anna Ioanovna, from 1730 to 1740, and Ioan Antonovich, from 1740 to 1741, various kinds of German adventurers were in power.

Under Elizaveta Petrovna, who ascended the throne in November 1741, the Shuvalovs and Razumovskys, the empress's favorites, played a prominent role. Elizabeth's heir was Peter III Fedorovich. He pursued a policy that the Russian nobility did not accept. As a result, in 1762, after another coup, the wife of Peter III, Catherine II, ascended the throne at 33 years old. It was announced that her husband Peter was killed "by accident."

The 34 years of Catherine II's reign went down in history as the "golden age of the nobility", because... she pursued a pro-noble policy. Following her husband, Peter III, she allowed the nobles not to serve, held a General Land Survey in 1765, i.e. divided the land among the nobles. The opportunity arose to buy and sell collateral, which did not give the treasury a penny, but all the nobility was on Catherine’s side.

In addition, she gave the nobles 600 thousand serfs for their service, for example, Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov received several thousand people. In the interests of the nobility, it deprives the peasants of their last rights - under pain of hard labor, it was forbidden to complain about the landowner, it was allowed to sell serfs “at retail”, i.e. Families were mercilessly split up.

Thus, if for the nobility the end of the 18th century was the golden period of history, then for the peasants it was the most terrible period of slavery. During her reign, Catherine II relied on the personal devotion of her favorites, raised a galaxy of Russian politicians, suppressed revolutions by all means, was inspired by the ideas of the philosopher Voltaire, read the books of Rousseau and Montesquieu, but perceived the Enlightenment in her own, original way.

She believed that education should affect only the upper strata of society; she did not give freedom to the peasants, because this would lead to a riot. Catherine II was especially frightened by the Pugachev rebellion (1773-1775), in which serfs, Cossacks, working people, Bashkirs, and Kalmyks took part. Peasants' War was defeated, but Catherine learned the main lesson from it - the peasants should not be given freedom, and did not abolish serfdom.

Transformations of Catherine the Great

1. Abolished state monopolies on tobacco and some other activities, which contributed to their development.
2. Created a number of educational educational institutions, for example, Free Economic Society, Institute of Noble Maidens. Yes, in Volny economic society studied and introduced agriculture, technical innovations (prizes were given for each invention), through the efforts of this society potatoes were introduced (initiated by Andrei Bolotov).
3. Under Catherine, the construction of manufactories expanded, new industries appeared, such as hosiery, the number of manufactories doubled, and they were not only serfs, but also hired ones, i.e. the first peasant workers appear (the right to otkhodnichestvo), foreign investments.
3. Development of new lands. In order to develop new territories in the south of the country (Crimea, Kuban, Southern Ukraine), she donates them to the nobles. After a couple of years, he realizes that this is ineffective and invites “foreigners” - the Greeks founded Mariupol, the Armenians founded the village of Chaltyr, the Bulgarians brought viticulture. In addition, Catherine announces that those peasants who escape and settle in new lands will be free.
4. Catherine II did not sell Alaska to America, but leased it for 100 years so that the Americans could develop it.

After the death of Catherine II, her son Paul I (1796-1801) became emperor. Under him, domestic policy was also pro-noble and pro-serfdom. Serfdom is becoming increasingly widespread. However, relations between the emperor and the nobility become extremely tense after the next innovations of Paul I.

Paul banned noble meetings in the provinces; at his whim, he could exile some nobles and elevate others. In addition, the severance of relations with England hit the income of landowners, because Agricultural products were exported there. The result of this policy was a conspiracy; Paul was killed in 1801 and his son Alexander ascended the throne. This is how the 18th century ended in Russia.

Thus, the 18th century in the history of Russia was characterized by the following:

1. Since the reign of Peter I, a tradition has been established that all reforms are carried out by the state.
2. Modernization of Russia is carried out according to the catch-up option, and we take from the West what we like.
3. Modernization is carried out at the expense of its own people, i.e. Russia is a self-colony.
4. Any modernization is accompanied by bureaucratization.

The 18th century in the history of Russia is a cruel, even merciless century of the reign of Peter I, who decided to change Russia in a short time.

This is the time of Streltsy riots and palace coups, the reign of Catherine the Great, peasant wars and the strengthening of serfdom. But at the same time, this period of Russian history is characterized by the development of education, the opening of new educational institutions, including Moscow University and the Academy of Arts.

In 1756 in the capital Russian Empire the first theater appeared. The end of the 18th century was the heyday of the creativity of artists Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky, and sculptor Fedot Shubin.

Now let's look in more detail at the main events of the 18th century and the historical characters of that time:

At the end of the 17th century, in 1676, Alexei Mikhailovich died, and his son Fyodor Alekseevich ascended the throne. Peter Alekseevich, who later became Emperor Peter I, will become king in 1682. In 1689, Peter, at the encouragement of his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, married Evdokia Lopukhina, which means he reached adulthood, as was believed at that time.

Sophia, who wanted to remain on the throne, raised the archers against Peter, but the rebellion was suppressed, after which Sophia was imprisoned in a monastery, and the throne passed to Peter, although until 1696 Peter’s formal co-ruler was his brother, Ivan Alekseevich.

Peter I had a rather remarkable appearance. His height was 2m 10 cm, he was narrow in the shoulders, had long arms and an unusual gait, so that his entourage had to not just follow him, but run.

From the age of 6, Peter began to learn to read and write and received an encyclopedic education at that time. Left without a father, Peter was engaged in self-education. With the permission of Princess Sophia, he creates a personal amusing guard, and later it was these two amusing regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky who played a big role when Peter came to power.

In addition, the young tsar’s favorite pastime was shooting boyars with steamed turnips.

Gradually, the king also had “favorite” close associates, and these were different people. Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, or simply Aleksashka, the son of the palace groom, who from the position of the royal orderly became the most illustrious prince, the richest man; “German” (Dutch) Franz Lefort, who became the tsar’s main adviser after his accession to the throne.

• It was Lefort who advised Peter to establish foreign trade, but the problem lay in one of the two well-known Russian problems - roads.

Russia needed access to the sea through Sweden and Turkey. Peter I undertakes two campaigns against Azov, the second of which was successful and ended with the founding of the Taganrog fortress (on Cape Tagany Rog). The war with Turkey, which began in 1697, showed that Russia needed loans, allies and weapons.

For this purpose, the Grand Embassy was sent to Europe, in which Peter I was listed as a simple person - constable Pyotr Alekseevich. He was the first Russian Tsar to visit Europe.

Formally, Peter followed incognito, but his conspicuous appearance easily gave him away. And the tsar himself, during his travels, often preferred to personally lead negotiations with foreign rulers. Perhaps this behavior is explained by the desire to simplify the conventions associated with diplomatic etiquette.

Returning from the trip and plunging back into life in Russia, Peter hated it, decided to completely remake it and, as you know, he succeeds.

Reforms of Peter I, with which he began his transformations:

1. He disbanded the Streltsy army, created a mercenary army, which he dresses in almost European uniforms and puts at the head of foreign officers.
2. He transferred the country to a new calendar, from the Nativity of Christ, the old one was carried out from the creation of the world. On January 1, 1700, Russia began to celebrate the New Year.
3. He obliged every 10 thousand households to build 1 ship, as a result Russia received a large fleet.
4. He carried out urban reform - self-government was introduced in cities, and mayors were placed at the head of cities. Although this was the end of the “Europeanization” of cities.

In 1700, Peter I decides to start a war with Sweden, which ended in 1721 G.

The Northern War began unsuccessfully, Peter was defeated near Narva, fled from the battlefield even before the battle began, but repented of this and decided to rebuild his army.

Transformations were made based on the needs of the troops. For the war, guns were needed, as a result, the bells of Russian churches are cast on them, then metallurgical enterprises are built. By the middle of the century, there were 75 metallurgical enterprises operating in the country, which fully met the country's needs for cast iron, almost half of the production was exported. It was necessary to arm the army, so weapons factories were built. In addition, Peter I orders the construction of linen factories. Shipbuilding, rope, leather and glass production are developing.

The shipyards build galleys, which played a decisive role in the defeat of the Swedes at Gangut.

Peter introduced military service - conscription - from 20 households, 1 person went to serve for 25 years; He also introduces compulsory service to the nobility for 25 years. These measures made it possible to quickly create a new army - 20 thousand sailors and 35 thousand ground troops.

Peter I understands that Russia needs knowledge and money.

To do this, he forced hundreds of young nobles and boyars to go abroad to study, and fiscal officials were assigned to monitor them; created a number of technical universities (Higher Artillery School), where Western professors were teachers. In order to encourage not only nobles, but also ordinary people to study, Peter issues a decree according to which everyone who graduates from high school and knows foreign languages ​​will receive nobility.

To boost the economy, the king in 1718-1724. introduces a capitation tax (a male soul). The tax was heavy and exceeded the solvency of the people of the Russian Empire. This provoked an increase in arrears.

To stop thefts, because... Everyone was actively stealing, and the first thief was Menshikov; the Tsar orders not only the suspect, but also his entire family to be hanged on the rack.

A number of additional fees were introduced - a beard fee, a fee for wearing Russian dress, and those who did not drink coffee were fined.

In order not to spend money on hired labor, Peter I introduced serf labor. Villages were assigned to factories, and artisans to cities.

By decree of 1736, factory workers were assigned to manufactories forever and received the name “eternally given.” This form of labor hampered the development of Russia; they got rid of it only in the 19th century.

In addition, Peter I strives to develop trade. They introduce customs duties much more for imported goods than for exported goods. As a result, by the end of the Northern War, Russia had a developed economy, but it was a serf economy.
The reign of Peter was a time of transformation in Russia, a time of reform. In addition to those listed above, Peter carried out administrative and social reforms, and he also changed the judicial system.

Administrative reforms of Peter I:

1. Peter divides the country into provinces; at the head of the provinces was a governor-general, whose only form of punishment was the death penalty.
2. Peter in 1711-1721 abolished the order system, created collegiums-prototypes of ministries. The head of the board was appointed by the king “according to his intelligence, and not according to the nobility of the family,” i.e. good education was required for service
3. In 1711, the Senate became the highest state body, which, in the absence of the Tsar, performed his functions
4. At the head of all state power was Emperor Peter I. This title was approved by Peter himself in 1721 after the end of the war with Sweden.

Social policy of Peter I.

In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was introduced, according to which all service people were divided into 14 categories, the lowest rank being ensign. Anyone who reached the 8th rank received nobility. The judicial system was changed - “they judged not by word, but by pen,” i.e. all court cases were formalized in writing and judged on the basis of written laws, which made it possible for judges to take new bribes.

In 1703, St. Petersburg became the capital of Russia, which was built on the bones of serfs.

Peter I forcibly resettles about 1,000 nobles to St. Petersburg, but after Peter’s death, the Russian tsars preferred Moscow (until 1918, when St. Petersburg again became the capital).

• In 1725, with the death of Peter I, the era of palace coups.

During the reigns of Catherine I, from 1725 to 1727, and Peter II, from 1727 to 1730, Menshikov performed the functions of emperor.

During the reign of Anna Ioanovna, from 1730 to 1740, and Ioan Antonovich, from 1740 to 1741, various kinds of German adventurers were in power.

Under Elizaveta Petrovna, who ascended the throne in November 1741, the Shuvalovs and Razumovskys, the empress’s favorites, played a prominent role. Elizabeth's heir was Peter III Fedorovich. He pursued a policy that the Russian nobility did not accept. As a result, in 1762, after another coup, the wife of Peter III, Catherine II, ascended the throne at 33 years old.

It was announced that her husband Peter was killed “by accident.” The 34 years of Catherine II's reign went down in history as "golden age of nobility" , because she pursued a pro-noble policy. Following her husband, Peter III, she allowed the nobles not to serve, and held a General Land Survey in 1765, i.e. divided the land among the nobles. The opportunity arose to buy and sell collateral, which did not give the treasury a penny, but all the nobility was on Catherine’s side.

• land surveying- this is a set of works aimed at determining and securing the boundaries of a certain land plot on the ground.

In addition, she gave the nobles 600 thousand serfs for their service, for example, Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov received several thousand people. In the interests of the nobility, it deprives the peasants of their last rights - under pain of hard labor, it was forbidden to complain about the landowner, it was allowed to sell serfs “at retail”, i.e. Families were mercilessly split up.

Thus, if for the nobility the end of the 18th century was the golden period of history, then for the peasants it was the most terrible period of slavery.

During her reign, Catherine II relied on the personal devotion of her favorites, raised a galaxy of Russian politicians, suppressed revolutions by all means, was inspired by the ideas of the philosopher Voltaire, read the books of Rousseau and Montesquieu, but perceived the Enlightenment in her own, original way. So she believed that enlightenment should affect only the upper strata of society; she did not give freedom to the peasants, because this would lead to a riot.

Catherine II was especially frightened by the Pugachev rebellion (1773-1775), in which serfs, Cossacks, working people, Bashkirs, and Kalmyks took part. The Peasants' War was defeated, but Catherine learned the main lesson from it - the peasants should not be given freedom, and did not abolish serfdom.

Transformations of Catherine the Great:

1. Abolished state monopolies on tobacco and some other activities, which contributed to their development.
2. She created a number of educational institutions, for example, the Free Economic Society, the Institute of Noble Maidens. Thus, in the Free Economic Society, agriculture and technical innovations were studied and introduced (prizes were given for each invention); through the efforts of this society, potatoes were introduced (initiated by Andrei Bolotov).
3. Under Catherine, the construction of manufactories expanded, new industries appeared, such as hosiery, the number of manufactories doubled, and they were not only serfs, but also hired ones, i.e. the first peasant workers appear (the right to otkhodnichestvo), foreign investments.
4. Development of new lands. In order to develop new territories in the south of the country (Crimea, Kuban, Southern Ukraine), she donates them to the nobles. After a couple of years, he realizes that this is ineffective and invites “foreigners” - the Greeks founded Mariupol, the Armenians founded the village of Chaltyr, the Bulgarians brought viticulture. In addition, Catherine announces that those peasants who escape and settle in new lands will be free.
5. Catherine II did not sell Alaska to America, but leased it for 100 years so that the Americans could develop it.

After the death of Catherine II, her son Paul I (1796-1801) became emperor.

Under him, domestic policy was also pro-noble and pro-serfdom. Serfdom is becoming increasingly widespread. However, relations between the emperor and the nobility become extremely tense after the next innovations of Paul I.

Paul banned noble meetings in the provinces; at his whim, he could exile some nobles and elevate others. In addition, the severance of relations with England hit the income of landowners, because Agricultural products were exported there. The result of this policy was a conspiracy; Paul was killed in 1801 and his son Alexander ascended the throne. This is how the 18th century ended in Russia.

Thus, the 18th century in the history of Russia was characterized by the following:

• Since the reign of Peter I, a tradition has been established that all reforms are carried out by the state.
• Russia's modernization is being carried out according to a catch-up scenario, and we take from the West what we like.
• Modernization is carried out at the expense of its own people, i.e. Russia is a self-colony.
• Any modernization is accompanied by bureaucratization. Although it can be said that this is characteristic not only of Russia in the 18th century, this state of affairs has persisted to this day.

So, to begin with, let’s answer a far from new question that arises in many schoolchildren and not only: “XVIII - what century is this?” Let's try to figure this out in this article.

The mystery of Latin numbers, or the answer to the question: “XVIII - what century is this?”

People often complain that Roman numerals are very difficult for them. In fact, there is nothing difficult here. Everything follows a completely understandable logic.

So, in the case of the number XVIII, it must be deciphered starting from the very beginning. So, X is ten. Accordingly, the number will clearly be greater than 10, since the remaining numbers are to the right of the main one. The fact is that if we had the number IX, then it would already be 9, since the one on the left is subtracted from 10. So, let's look further. V is 5, and the last part, respectively, is 3. All elements are summed up and we get the finished number - 18. But in parallel with the question of what century it is in the 18th century, another difficulty arises. Which year can be attributed to the 18th century - 1750 or 1829? There is only one answer: 1750, since 1829 will already be the 19th century.

History of the 18th century. Education

So, when we have figured out which century is which, let’s dwell on the history of this period. Let's start with the fact that Europe in the 18th century was experiencing a grandiose event in its history - the Enlightenment. This term is familiar to many. One may wonder: what century is this in the 18th century, but one cannot help but know the peculiarities of this phenomenon. Each country did it differently. But what was common to all was the collapse of feudalism.

Enlightenment is a natural process that inevitably began with the fall of the feudal system. It is humanistic and gravitates towards formal law, seeing in it a guarantee of freedom and better life. The Enlightenment as a phenomenon not only influenced the mental development of Europe. It boldly criticized obsolete and outdated forms of life and way of life, preserved since the Middle Ages.

Basic ideas of the English Enlightenment

Thus, Locke highlighted moral qualities and guidelines, considering the state as an agreement of people. He believed that the only natural regulator of interpersonal and social relations are the norms of morality, ethics and behavior.

They had to be established, according to the philosopher, “by universal silent consent.” The history of the 18th century completely determined the further development path of many countries, including Great Britain. English leaders believed that highest goal- not the happiness of society, but the happiness of the individual, personal elevation.

Locke also emphasized that all people are born with a set of powers and abilities that will help them achieve almost anything. But only constant efforts, as the philosopher believed, contribute to the realization of the potential inherent in everyone. Only personal creative effort will help a person succeed in life. In saying this, the 18th century very accurately grasped the needs of society during that period.

French Enlightenment

Unlike the ideas of the English Enlightenment, Rousseau highlights society, and not one individual. According to his ideas, society initially had all the power, but then it handed over power to rulers to act in its interests. Rousseau was a supporter of a democratic-republican state. Civic equality will only be achieved when every citizen can participate in government.

Montesquieu, in turn, insists that any country must adapt to the climate, religion, and character of the people. The philosopher also considers the best form government system republican form. But, not seeing the possibility of implementing it in modern states, he stops at In this case, the ruler will only have executive power, and legislative power will belong to the elected parliament.

No, you will not be forgotten, a century of madness and wisdom!..
A.N. Radishchev

In a series of centuries European history The 18th century occupies a special place. There were times of more grandiose achievements, but there was no era more complete in style, more, so to speak, “whole.” The famous art critic N. Dmitrieva calls him last century dominance of aristocratic culture. Hence its refinement and this very “stylishness,” sometimes at the expense of depth. And at the same time, this is the era of the establishment of new values ​​in the life of Europeans, values ​​that are still alive today and which, in fact, determine the current face of European civilization.
To the melodious chimes of harpsichords and harps, several revolutions took place simultaneously in the lives, heads and hearts of Europeans, of which only two we usually call “revolutions” proper: the Great French Revolution and the War of Independence of the United States of America. Meanwhile, they only put points that smelled of blood and gunpowder in the sentences that Europe diligently wrote throughout the 18th century.
So, first a little about revolutions.

Revolution on the tables

The main achievement of the “eighteenth century” is that it, in principle, ended famine in the main countries of Europe. The “bread riots” in Paris don’t bother us too much: more often they rioted due to the lack or high cost of the already familiar white bread. So Marie Antoinette’s frivolous phrase (“If the people have no bread, let them eat cake”) is in some ways not so frivolous. Yes, there are interruptions in the supply of bread to big cities happened, but in terms of famine, Europe suffered in full at the very beginning of the 18th century, when during a bad harvest, even black bread began to be served at Madame Maintenon’s table.
In the 18th century, the European menu changed dramatically. The old triad (bread meat wine) is complemented by new products: potatoes, corn, spinach, green peas, tea, coffee and chocolate (which are becoming increasingly popular delicacies). And the previous three “pillars” of the European diet are significantly changing their “face”. Since the mid-18th century in France, rye bread has been replaced by wheat bread made with milk (the famous “French boxes” were brought to Europe by Napoleon’s soldiers on their bayonets).
With the improvement of livestock farming, the meat market, which was extremely constrained by the powerful population growth in the previous three centuries, is gradually becoming saturated. Of course, for most Europeans, meat is not yet available in the most healthy form: in the form of corned beef and all kinds of smoked meats. However, with fish it was still more difficult: they said that the poor could only enjoy the aroma of fresh fish.
Finally, climate and taste preferences also determined the characteristics of the consumption of alcoholic beverages. The south and southwest of Europe chose wine, the north and northwest - beer, and the most dashing and cold northeast - of course, vodka.
The influx of sugar (generally speaking, still very expensive) made it possible to stock up on fruits and berries (and vitamins for the winter). True, at the beginning of the 18th century, jam was still such a rare and valuable product that, for example, the Parisians presented it as a gift to Peter the Great.
All these seemingly purely culinary innovations produced a real revolution. Suffice it to say that Britain, which did not know a shortage of meat products, largely owes its powerful population growth in the 18th century to this, without which, in fact, the British Empire would not have happened. And the American colonists’ love for tea led to their indignation at the rise in duties on tea introduced by British officials (the so-called “ Boston Tea Party"). Figuratively speaking, the United States of America was born from a cup of spilled tea.
The table revolution propelled the development of society forward. Without her Europe and North America would not have become the hegemon of the rest of the world in the 19th century.
(By the way, the 18th century also came to grips with setting the European table, which was greatly facilitated by the production of porcelain, gourmetism instead of gluttony and increased hygiene standards. Rules of behavior at the table, dishes and cutlery came to us (at least at the level of embassy and restaurant banquets) from there, from the “eighteenth century”).

Revolution in our heads

The 18th century is usually called the Age of Enlightenment, although this word itself is too sluggish and approximately defines the processes that took place in the minds of Europeans between 1700 and 1804 (I indicate the year of death of I. Kant).
European thinkers break with theology and delimit the sphere of philosophy proper from natural science. According to Newton's mechanistic picture of the world, God is needed only as the one who gave the initial impetus to the development of nature, and next world rolled away from him completely separately.
The 18th century is the century of practitioners, which is why thinkers are not satisfied with empty scholastic reasoning. The criterion of truth is experience. Any pathos and rhetoric seem inappropriate under any circumstances. Dying of cancer, the marquise, for whom Rousseau served, emits gases, declares that a woman capable of such a thing will still live, and gives her soul to God, one might say, with a boldly carefree smile.
Philosophers admire the perfection of the world (Leibniz) and mercilessly criticize it (encyclopedists), sing hosannas to reason and the progress of civilization (Voltaire) and declare progress and reason the enemies of natural human rights (Rousseau). But all these theories now, at a distance of years, do not seem mutually exclusive. They all revolve around man, his ability to understand the world and transform it in accordance with your needs and ideas about the “best”.
At the same time, philosophers have been confident for a very long time that man is reasonable and good by nature, that only “circumstances” are to blame for his misfortunes. Literacy and potatoes are planted by the monarchs themselves. The general mood of European philosophy of the 18th century can be called “cautious optimism,” and its slogan was Voltaire’s call for everyone to “cultivate his own garden.”
Alas, the bloody horrors of the French Revolution will force us to radically reconsider the complacent delusion of philosophers, but this will only happen in the next century. However, the purely European idea of ​​individual rights would then, in the 18th century, establish itself as the most basic value.

Revolution in hearts

The “Age of Reason” would not have taken place in all its splendor without a revolution in hearts. The personality gradually emancipates, realizes his inner world as important and valuable. The emotional life of Europeans is becoming richer and more sophisticated.
Immortal evidence of this was the great music of the 18th century, perhaps one of the highest achievements in the history of mankind.
The remarkable French composer of the early 18th century J.F. Rameau was the first to formulate the intrinsic role of music, which was previously considered only an aid to words. He wrote: “To truly enjoy music, we must completely dissolve in it” (quoted from: G. Koenigsberger, p. 248).
Music expressed the emotions of the time much more accurately and subtly than the censored word squeezed by conventions. For an educated European it became urgent need. In the libraries of Czech and Austrian castles, music folders are crowded on the shelves along with books: new musical releases were read here at sight, like newspapers, and just as greedily!
The music of the 18th century is still full of a lot of conventions and given formulas. It was the presence of these common places that allowed composers to be so prolific (over 40 operas by G. F. Handel, more than 200 violin concertos by A. Vivaldi, more than 100 symphonies by I. Haydn!) At the same time, it is still so democratic that it gives a chance even and amateurs: Zh.Zh. Rousseau composes an opera that is a success at court, and the king himself, terribly out of tune, sings his favorite arietka from it.
Music of the 18th century was closely connected with life and everyday life. Bach hoped that his sacred music could be performed by a choir of parishioners in a church, and the most beloved everyday dance, the minuet, became an integral part of any symphony until the era of Beethoven…
Each country in the 18th century realized its identity through music. German G.F. Handel brought the lush Italian opera seria to foggy London. But the ancient stories seemed too abstract and lifeless to the British public. Almost without changing the musical form, Handel proceeds to create oratorios, which are, as it were, the same operas, but only in concert performance, and they are written based on stories from the Bible that were passionately experienced by listeners. And the general public responds to this with delight; Handel’s spiritual oratorios become a national treasure, their performance results in patriotic manifestations.
The result of the musical development of the 18th century is the work of V.A. Mozart. The brilliant Austrian introduces to music new topic the theme of the fate of its creator, that is, it introduces the personality of a contemporary with his simple and urgent desires, joys and fears. “In general, Man is a creature of God” thanks to this, in music he turns into a person of a specific era, acquires the features of a real personality and destiny…

A revolution in manners

A strictly hierarchical feudal society always pays Special attention etiquette. It is a means of emphasizing the status (orderly inequality) of social position.
Of course, etiquette continues to dominate relations between people in the 18th century. Ambassadors delay presenting credentials if papers proving their nobility dates back to at least the 14th century do not arrive on time. Otherwise, during the presentation ceremony at Versailles, the king will not be able to hug and kiss the ambassador’s wife, but will only greet her! Etiquette dominates the minds of the courtiers to such an extent that some of them quite seriously claim that the Great French revolution erupted because the Controller General of Finance Necker came to the king wearing shoes with bows, and not with buckles!
However, the monarchs themselves are already quite tired of all these conventions. Louis the Fifteenth hides from the constraints of etiquette in the boudoirs of his lovers, Catherine the Great in her Hermitage, and Marie Antoinette cannot swallow a bite at the traditional public royal meal and is satisfied afterwards, already alone.
Opposed to the courtyard is a salon, aristocratic and bourgeois, where hosts and guests communicate briefly. The tone is set by the most august persons. The Regent of France, Philippe d'Orléans the Younger, proclaims at his orgies: “Everything is prohibited here except pleasure!”
But the ice floe of feudal etiquette is melting slowly and unevenly. Back in 1726, the lackeys of a noble lord could beat the fashionable author de Voltaire with sticks for an impudent answer to their master. Back in 1730, the church could refuse to bury the famous actress Adrienne Lecouvreur (despite the fact that she was the mistress of the Marshal of France), because during her lifetime she was engaged in the “shameful craft of an actor.”
But twenty years later, in the same France, the status of the artist changes, the artist will literally force the king to respect his human dignity. And it was like this. Offended by Louis the Fifteenth, the famous pastel portrait master Latour refused for a long time to immortalize the Marquise of Pompadour “herself.” When she managed to persuade the whim, the artist undressed in front of her almost to his shirt. During the session the king entered. “How, madam, you swore to me that they would not interfere with us!” Latour screamed and rushed to collect the crayons. The king and his mistress barely persuaded the pastel virtuoso to continue the session.
Of course, in a feudal society everything is determined by rank, not talent. Mozart writes that at the table of the Salzburg archbishop his place is higher than the footman, but lower than the cook. But at about this time, bourgeois England was burying the “actor,” the great actor D. Garrick, in Westminster Abbey!
The crisis of feudal society gives rise to a new idea of ​​man. Now the ideal is not the feudal lord or the court nobleman, but the private individual, the “good man” in France, the gentleman in England. By the end of the century, in these countries it was not nobility, but success, talent and wealth that determined the status of an individual in society.
Here is a typical anecdote on this topic. Napoleon could not stand the composer Cherubini. Once, at a reception in the palace, after introducing everyone present, the emperor again pointedly inquired about the name of “this gentleman.” “Still Cherubini, sire!” The maestro answered him sharply.
In other countries, it will take almost half of the next century to emancipate the individual.…

Peter discovers Europe

In the 18th century, another great power appeared on the European political scene: Russia. The “presentation” of the new political giant took place in the spring and summer of 1717, when an embassy of the still mysterious, but already slightly Europeanized “Muscovites” visited a number of European capitals.
Alas, neither Paris nor Berlin were fascinated by the Russian heroes led by Tsar Peter.
Now for the details.
At the end of April that year, the Russians arrived at the French border. Versailles sent one of its most elegant courtiers, the Marquis de Mailly-Nesle, to meet them. The Marquis found the Russians, naturally, in the tavern, snoring and vomiting. Only Peter moved his tongue.