The First World War seriously influenced the further formation of the Japanese economy. The revision of treaties with Western powers, the development of external contacts, control of China and Korea - all this made Japan a virtual monopolist in the Asian market. After the war, Japan actively invested in the economies of other countries. Growing exports served as a good stimulus for industrial growth; the pace of its development was amazing: production volume almost doubled in just five years. In industrial development, priority was given to heavy industry. The war had a positive impact on the development of the largest companies that only became richer during the hostilities: Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Yasuda and others. At the same time, the situation of workers and peasants, dissatisfied with rising prices and increased taxes, sharply worsened. A wave of so-called rice riots swept across the country. Although these uprisings were brutally suppressed, one of the consequences of the “popular anger” was the resignation of the war-minded Terauti government and the coming to power of a new government led by Haara, the leader of the party of landowners and large capitalists. Also, after the riots, a mass movement for universal suffrage developed, the strengthening of which forced the government to make concessions - the property qualification was significantly reduced.

At the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, Japan achieved the official transfer to its jurisdiction of all Pacific territories previously belonging to Germany. Western powers, counting on Japan's support in the fight against the spread of communism, agreed to these demands. Japan agreed to participate in the anti-Soviet struggle and was among the invaders who invaded the territory of the Soviet Union in 1920. However, Japan remained faithful to its interests here too: in the Soviet Union, it was only interested in Sakhalin, which it did not advance beyond the occupation of. Sakhalin was in actual possession of Japan until the establishment of Russian-Japanese relations in 1925. The Japanese people, among whom socialist ideas were widespread, were sympathetic to the problems of socialist Russia; moreover, the intervention required exertion of strength from an almost completely exhausted country. Dissatisfaction with the government's policies was brewing even in army circles, whose contents were sharply reduced due to the lack of sufficient funding from the almost impoverished state, which nevertheless had enormous ambitions.

The period 1920–1921 became a time of crisis in the world economy. Japan, whose economic development during this period depended on external relations, came under a blow from which it could not recover for a long time. The global crisis has caused mass unemployment. The crisis was further aggravated by the fact that after the end of the war, Japan again lost its position in the Asian market, where Western entrepreneurs returned, whose products were undoubtedly better. All these circumstances were beneficial to the Western powers, especially the United States, who wanted to moderate the Japanese appetite for spreading their influence.

On November 12, 1921, a conference was convened in Washington, which was attended by all Western European countries wishing to resolve controversial issues regarding the Pacific territories. As a result of these negotiations, agreements were concluded that significantly weakened Japan's position. A certain “balance” of world powers had been established, but Japan did not intend to put up with the new state of affairs. Less than 10 years have passed since it upset this fragile Pacific balance.

Japanese fascism

In 1927, another change of government took place in Japan: the outbreak of an internal financial crisis brought an ardent militarist, General Giichi Tanaka, to power. First of all, he. division of the alley with the “left” movement in the country: the workers’ and peasants’ parties suffered significant damage. In the same year, General Tanaka presented to the emperor a secret project, according to which Japan was to pursue a policy of “blood and iron” and crush the Western powers. One of the points of this program was the beginning of military operations against the Soviet Union. Less than a year later, Tanaka began to implement his plan: intervention in China began. This attempt was unsuccessful and the Tanaka cabinet was removed from the board. He was replaced by more peacefully minded ministers. However, in 1931, Japan again reminded itself: another attempt to regain its influence in China resulted in a war in Manchuria and its capture. The next stage was the violation of the commitments made at the Washington Conference. In 1936, Japan officially announced its unwillingness to follow the treaties, which further strained its relations with England and the United States. These actions of the Japanese government were not supported by all its members. Tired of the endless foreign policy maneuvers of the current government, fascist-minded politicians attempted a coup - the fascist putsch of 1936. As a result, Koki Hirota came to power. The creation of the Hirota government was a further step towards the fascistization of Japan, which at the foreign policy level led to the deployment of Japanese aggression. Further development of the country in this direction was carried out under the leadership of First Minister Fumiro Konoe, who was closely associated with holders of large capital and with military-fascist circles. It was his government that took the initiative to start a war with China.

War in China (1937–1941)

Japan had been preparing plans for an attack on China for a very long time, so when on May 7, 1937, it began military operations against Chinese troops near Beijing, it was a clearly planned operation. The Japanese, believing in their quick success, were unpleasantly surprised when the resistance of the Chinese military led to the protracted nature of the war.

With the outbreak of war, the entire economy of the country was transferred to serving military needs. The law “On the General Mobilization of the Nation” was adopted, providing for the government’s right to total control of all spheres of the economy, including transport and trade. Since Konoe's cabinet was linked to large Japanese firms, this provision of the law meant that control of the economy passed into the hands of monopolists. The share of military expenditures was significantly increased: up to 70–80% of the national budget. The situation of workers sharply worsened: wages decreased, and the working day increased to 14 hours. The Japanese government took advantage of the created situation and the control over the situation in the country that fell into their hands and began to crack down on all dissidents and opposition forces widespread among the people. Communist parties were dissolved, many of whose members were arrested. In this situation, the policy of England and the United States is striking, which, with their “non-interference” tactics, practically expressed approval of Japanese policy. This led to Japan, having seized a significant amount of Chinese territory, declared its dominance over all of China and put forward aggressive demands against the Soviet Union. Only then did the United States, which did not want to part with its possessions in China, try to intervene in Japanese affairs. The war dragged on: the Konoe government was forced to resign. In 1939, he was replaced by an even more aggressive and fascist government of Kiichiro Hira-numa. Japan took the path of further aggravation of relations with Western powers. The attack on the Chinese territories of the Soviet Union showed that Japan could not cope on its own. During May-August 1939, major military operations took place between the Japanese-Manchurian troops, on the one hand, and the Soviet and Mongolian troops, on the other, which ended in severe defeats for the Japanese. Having failed, the Hiranuma government resigned.

When Nazi Germany began hostilities in Europe, starting World War II with its attack on Poland on September 1, 1939, the Japanese government, led by General Nobuyuki Abe, declared its first priority to resolve the Chinese question and non-interference in European affairs. The domestic economy was collapsing before our eyes. A card system was introduced. But this did not stop the Japanese military, eager to get rich by capturing new territories. In 1940, Konoe came to power again. This meant the complete fascism of the Japanese political and state system. All parties except the ruling one were dissolved. In addition, the creation of a new economic system was announced, according to which the economy would finally pass into the hands of the state. Another point of the new policy was the proclamation of the creation of a single Asian zone led by Japan. In the same year, a pact was concluded with Germany and Italy, in which these three countries recognized the legitimacy of claims against each other. The USA and England continued to maintain a policy of non-interference in the affairs of the three aggressors: on the one hand, they still hoped to “pit” Japan against the Soviet Union, and on the other, they tried to peacefully resolve the conflict with Germany. On April 13, 1941, a neutrality pact was signed between the Soviet Union and Japan. The Soviet Union hoped to ensure the security of its eastern borders in this way, but Japan had a different opinion on this matter: despite the signing of the agreement, the Japanese General Staff was developing a plan for a surprise attack on the USSR and the capture of the Far East. The United States tried to harmonize Japanese policy with its interests, which was beneficial to the Japanese government, which sought to gain as much time as possible to build up military power and openly implement its plans. However, endless negotiations regarding China eventually reached a dead end. On November 26, 1941, the American ambassador demanded that Japan withdraw its troops from Chinese territory. For Japan, this option was unacceptable, and the government decided to begin military action. On December 7, 1941, Pearl Harbor was attacked.

War in the Pacific (1941–1945)

The Pacific War began with the attack on Pearl Harbor. Japanese aircraft managed to knock out most of the American fleet located in the area. A new agreement was concluded with Germany and Italy on the conduct of joint military operations against England and the United States. Initially, the war developed in favor of Japan: all the countries of Southeast Asia were captured. One of the reasons for this success was that the captured countries, being British and American colonies, themselves longed to be freed from their influence and did not provide proper resistance to the Japanese aggressors. However, already in 1942, the United States managed to win several naval victories, thereby stopping the Japanese conquerors. Japan concentrated its attention on the USSR: it actively cooperated with Germany, transmitting to it secret information about the location of Soviet strategic points. The United States, meanwhile, intensified its activities in the Pacific Ocean. In the spring and summer of 1943, the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, as well as the islands of Attu and Kiska were cleared of the Japanese. Japan gradually lost its position. At the 1943 conference in Cairo, an agreement was concluded between England, the United States and China regarding future policies regarding Japanese aggression. Gradually, all the captured territories were taken away from her, and in 1944, military operations were carried out on Japanese territory: the islands of Iwajima and Okinawa were captured. In 1945, shortly before the surrender of Germany, an agreement was concluded between the USSR, the USA and England, according to which the Soviet Union pledged to enter the war against Japan in exchange for the return of its lost eastern territories. An earlier neutrality treaty with Japan was annulled.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki

On April 26, 1945, a declaration was published on behalf of the American government, which demanded that Japan cease hostilities. The Japanese decided to ignore this statement, thereby depriving themselves of any possibility of a peaceful resolution of the conflict. On August 6, 1945, the Americans dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima, and on August 9, a second bomb on the city of Nagasaki. The number of victims was incalculable. The use of this terrible means was carried out not only for the sake of Japan’s surrender, but also to demonstrate to the whole world its superiority in the field of weapons. First of all, this was done for the Soviet Union, which, after the victory over Germany, demanded too much. The Soviet Union began military operations against Japan, defeating its troops in Manchuria. As a result, on August 14, 1945, the Japanese government announced its intention to accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration. Despite this, the Kwantung Army continued to resist Soviet troops. The forces were not equal, and the Japanese suffered a final defeat. The Soviet Union thus regained South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. On September 2, 1945, Japan signed the unconditional surrender, the final event in the Pacific War and World War II.

American occupation

As a result of this act, Japan was occupied by the American military. She temporarily lost her independence in matters of diplomacy and trade. In addition, it was forced to carry out any foreign policy relations through America. Japan not only lost all its colonies and any influence in China, but also for some time lost power in the Okinawa islands, where American troops were stationed. General MacArthur, who led the occupation, became the de facto ruler of Japan, despite the formal preservation of all Japanese government bodies. American influence on Japanese events remained until 1951, when a peace treaty was signed between Japan and Western countries. According to this treaty, Japan was restored to its national independence, but certain measures taken to prevent a new wave of Japanese military aggression were maintained.

Internal political changes

According to the requirements of the Potsdam Declaration, Japan was obliged to focus its efforts on the democratization of domestic politics. Some laws adopted during the reign of fascist forces were repealed, and the establishment of democratic rights and freedoms was proclaimed. In particular, universal suffrage was established in Japan. All Japanese military forces were disbanded and all military administrative institutions were eliminated. Nevertheless, the influence of pro-fascist elements remained in the country for quite a long time, partially retaining their positions in remote provinces.

After all these measures, democratic parties re-emerged in Japan. On November 9, 1945, the Jiyuto Party, liberal in its attitude, was created, then the so-called progressive party - Shimpoto, whose leader, Kijuro Shidehara, was appointed by MacArthur to head the Japanese government, whose rule did not last long: after the 1946 elections, he resigned . The government, elected according to the new laws, adopted a new constitution of the country on May 3, 1947, where the parliament was proclaimed the highest and only legislative body of the country. The new constitution included an article declaring the Japanese people's renunciation of war and prohibiting Japan from having its own armed forces.

Economy

After the war, the Japanese economy was almost completely destroyed: some industrial enterprises were damaged due to enemy bombing, but more damage was caused by the strain with which enterprises were forced to operate during the war. Inflation began, which was impossible to stop. The occupiers, preoccupied with political changes, paid virtually no attention to the economic crisis and the elimination of its consequences. Only a few years later the Japanese economy began to revive thanks to American investment. The United States placed its military orders in Japanese industry and also provided economic assistance in overcoming the crisis. As a result, by 1951, production levels reached pre-war levels. Japan gradually regained its position in the foreign market, competing with Western countries in trade in Southeast Asia. Quite soon, Japan itself began to invest in the development of production in neighboring countries.

At the end of the 50s, Japan ranked first in the world in terms of industrial growth. There were many reasons for this, but the main thing is that Japan’s almost completely destroyed production was restored taking into account the latest advances in technology. Meanwhile, the situation of the workers remained very difficult. The extended working day, adopted during the war, was maintained, and wages did not increase, despite the increase in the volume of output. All this, as well as the signing of new unequal “security” treaties with America, gave rise to mass protests against the ruling cabinet of ministers. As a result, Hayato Ikeda came to power, whose name is associated with significant changes in both the domestic and foreign policies of Japan. The Ikeda government, bypassing the current constitution, reorganized the armed forces and increased them. A project was developed to double output, which, however, was soon rejected due to the obvious impossibility of its implementation. An important event that contributed to an increase in the number of workers needed by industry was the agricultural law, which eliminated small and medium-sized land farms in favor of larger and more independent ones. In the field of foreign policy, Ikeda maintained a pro-American orientation, further linking his country with the United States. In 1963, Japan signed a number of treaties indicating its consent to the creation of a South Asian military bloc (Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam) under American control. There were American military bases on Japanese territory, and American submarines received permission to be stationed in Japanese ports. However, close military-political cooperation did not contribute to mutual understanding in the field of economics, in particular, foreign trade. America had exclusive rights to almost unlimited exports to the Japanese market, which undermined the country's economy. The heads of Japanese concerns tried to free themselves from the one-sided economic relations imposed on them. Japan ranked first in industrial growth, first in shipbuilding, second in steel production, as well as in automotive, cement and electronics production. Great progress was observed in such industries as radio engineering, optics, and the chemical industry, but at the same time it was forced to put up with the dominance of low-quality American goods in its market. First Minister Ikeda made several business trips in the early 60s to establish sales markets in Asia and Western Europe, in particular in Germany, France, Italy and England. Also, at the request of the Japanese monopolists, the government was forced to expand ties with the Soviet Union. In 1961, an exhibition of Soviet industrial achievements was organized in Tokyo. In 1962, a number of agreements were signed between the Soviet government and the largest Japanese concerns.

In general, the further development of the Japanese state was associated with an increase in economic power due to the virtual absence of military interests. Japan finally realized that it was possible to achieve world domination not with the help of weapons, but with the help of expanding spheres of economic influence. Japan's focus on economic development has determined its modern appearance.

Cities and city dwellers Traditional holidays

Japan is a country with a rich history and culture. Many of the most important historical events have left their mark on the Japanese calendar and are celebrated as holidays. In addition to public holidays, traditional religious and folk holidays are also very popular - echoes of ancient rituals. Speaking about Japanese holidays, it should be noted that the attitude towards holidays in Japan is somewhat different from the European one. So, for example, in this country it is not customary to celebrate national holidays: celebrations with festive food and guests are held only to celebrate some personal events: birthday, wedding, etc. The Japanese attitude towards gifts is interesting. Valuing form above all in everything, the Japanese are most attracted to gifts by how they are packaged rather than by what is inside. Perhaps this is why it is considered impolite to unwrap a gift in the presence of a guest, which contradicts our ideas of good manners.

As in any other country, in Japan the calendar is replete with numerous significant dates. There is also a traditional set: Constitution Day, the founding day of the empire, New Year, etc. But the greatest interest is in Japanese holidays, which developed from ancient customs and rituals.

One of the most beautiful and attractive for tourists is the festival of admiring flowers - Hanami. The blossoming of plums, sakura, peaches, wisteria, and chrysanthemums leaves no one indifferent, unlike most public holidays. The Hanami holiday dates back to the Heian era, when the aestheticization of culture led to an increase in the popularity of these ordinary, in general, events, repeated year after year.

Another favorite holiday is the Boys' Day, traditionally celebrated on May 5th. The origin of this holiday is associated with ancient initiation rites for minor members of the community. Later, in the era of the primacy of the military class, this holiday began to be considered as an important stage in the development of the future warrior - his initiation into the samurai. It is still of great importance today.

Boys take part in celebration ceremonies until they are 15 years old - the age of majority. The reverence for this holiday and the joy of parents can be compared with the reverence with which in Russia older family members treat their offspring receiving their first passport. On the day of the holiday, houses and streets are decorated according to tradition. In every house where there are boys of suitable age, a unique stand is installed on which items of military weapons, armor are displayed, as well as (the influence of modernity) evidence of the achievements of the older men of the clan. All this is aimed at instilling in the boy a sense of pride in his own family and the desire to glorify it with his future deeds.

The girls' festival, or in Japanese - Hina Matsuri (Doll Festival), is celebrated in a similar way. In a family with girls, a stand is organized, but now with women's household items: dolls and toys. In addition to the ritual significance of protection from evil spirits, this holiday now occupies an important place in the education of women. Girls are instilled with the traditional qualities of a good wife, they are taught the basics of housekeeping, raising children, etc.

Major Japanese holidays

January

Ganjitsu (New Year)

Ekiden (marathon relay)

Haru no Nanakusa (Day of Cooking Rice Porridge with the Seven Herbs of Spring)

Kagami-biraki (ritual breaking of New Year's decorative rice balls - mochi)

Seijin no hi (Coming of Age Day)

February

3 or 4

Setsubun (New Year's Eve according to the old calendar)

4 or 5

Rissyun (Chinese New Year, or beginning of spring)

Kigensetsu (State Founding Day)

Valentine's Day

March

Hina Matsuri (Puppet Festival)

White Day

20 or 21

Shumbun no hi (Spring Equinox)

April

Kambutsu-e (Buddha's Birthday), or Hana Matsuri (Flower Festival)

Midori no hi (Green Day)

May

may Day

Campokinambi (Constitution Day)

Kodomo no hi (Children's Day)

June

Day against dental caries

July

Tanabata (Star Festival)

Umi no hi (Day of the Sea)

August

Day of Remembrance for the Victims of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

September

Nihyaku Toka (beginning of typhoon season), Disaster Management Day

14 or 15

Chushu no meigetsu (Full Moon Viewing Day)

Keiro no hi (Day of Respect for the Elderly)

23 or 24

Shubun no hi (Autumn Equinox)

October

Donation Day for the Poor

Taiyuku no hi (Sports Day)

November

Bunka no hi (Culture Day)

Shichi-go-san (Seven-Five-Three Festival)

Kinrokansha no hi (Labor Thanksgiving Day)

December

Tenno tanjobi (Emperor's Birthday)

Omisoka (cleansing the house before the New Year)

Traditional Japanese cuisine

There is a saying that “a Japanese eats not only with his mouth, but also with his eyes.” Indeed, the design of a dish in Japanese cuisine is given the same importance as its preparation. This explains some elements of Japanese dishes that are not at all intended to be eaten. Of course, such an important area of ​​human life as eating in Japan cannot but be accompanied by various traditions and rituals. So, for example, the Japanese never sit at a common table, but a separate table is set for the arriving guest, where the entire menu is displayed at once.

Interest in the East, especially Japan, is unusually high in the modern world. With growing interest in Japanese culture, tourism began to develop at an extraordinary pace in the country. Not least among the nation's peculiarities that arouse the curiosity of guests is exotic Japanese cuisine. Therefore, here in all cities there are countless restaurants and pubs that satisfy the most diverse tastes and requests of visitors. Among such establishments there are bars in the American and European style, oriental tea houses and Japanese restaurants specializing in preparing national dishes.

Here you can try chicken skin skewers, corn soup, jellyfish noodles, sea urchin slices with pickled bamboo shoots and raw shells. Since the Japanese eat all dishes with chopsticks, which replace the rather complex set of European cutlery, the soup has to be sipped. Traditional materials for making Japanese chopsticks are: ivory, silver, the most practical and common option is wooden (bamboo) chopsticks, which can be thrown away after the first use. It is Japanese cuisine that holds the secret of preparing the most expensive dish in the world - “marbled meat”.

The ordinary table of an ordinary Japanese is much more modest. Rice, the staple of Japanese cuisine, can be prepared in a variety of ways, but is most often served boiled or steamed. The Japanese breakfast is very hearty: it includes gohan - fluffy boiled rice, kono-mono - pickled cucumbers, or mizoshiru - bean soup. For lunch, gohan with boiled vegetables, boiled lentils and dishes of dried fish and eggs are again served. They dine again with gokhan with strong broth or zashi-mi - raw fish. In general, Japanese cuisine is distinguished by its simplicity and lack of unnecessary frills. Great importance is attached to the sense of taste: the uncomplicated tastes of natural products, which is why the Japanese consume little fat, spices and sauces. The basis of the Japanese diet is plant foods, vegetables, rice, fish, seafood, beef, pork, lamb and poultry. An indispensable Japanese product is rice, from which literally everything is prepared: from everyday dishes to desserts. The famous Japanese sake is also made from rice. The technology for making sake is similar to that used for brewing beer, but the finished drink contains 3 times more alcohol. Sake is drunk warmed from small porcelain cups.

The Japanese attach great importance to legumes. Bean cheese (tofu) and soybean paste (miso) are very popular in Japan.

The favorite traditional drink of the Japanese is green tea, which they drink at any time of the day and most often without sugar. To European tastes, hopelessly spoiled by black tea, Japanese tea seems tasteless and P| pale. It should be borne in mind that the main thing in drinking tea is enjoying the delicate aroma, which requires great concentration, so important, for example, in the tea ceremony. In addition to tea, the Japanese drink fruit water with ice. Kori, shaved ice with fruit syrup, is especially common as a soft drink.

Culture, education

The 50s were a period of rapid economic development for Japan and the beginning of a scientific and technological revolution that covered all sectors of the economy, which significantly increased the role of education. The developing industry needed qualified personnel. A structural restructuring of the education system has begun. First, primary and junior high schools were reformed, then the higher level of education. The need to replenish labor resources and narrow specialization, ensuring the training of the right specialist in the shortest possible time, significantly lowered the level of the general educational standard. Significant actions have also been taken in the field of moral education of youth, which is necessary to ensure internal stability. The education policy developed by the LDP proclaimed “the need to instill devotion to society... increasing productivity for one’s own happiness and the happiness of others.” The “new patriotism” of obedient and devoted employees to the company was the basis for declaring the goal of Japanese life to be “dissolution in work” and the duty to “put your whole soul into it.”

The number of higher educational institutions and technical colleges rapidly increased, and universities were established in almost all prefectures.

Literature

Changes in the socio-political and economic situation of the country had a significant impact on the development of literature in the 50s and 60s. Literature was required, above all, to be able to entertain, and this process was reflected in the boom of “intermediate literature,” which is something between outright hackwork and true art. Famous representatives of the literature of these years are Matsumoto Seicho, who wrote in the detective genre, Yamaoka Sohachi, the author of many historical novels, the most famous of which was Tokugawa Ieyasu. In the late 50s and early 60s, Tanizaki Junichiro and Kawabata Yasunari enjoyed the greatest fame. What these writers have in common is a philosophical attitude towards the world and the search for inner spiritual beauty. The discord between ideal and reality explains, according to Kawabata, that highest moment when a person and the world come into agreement. He became one of the first Japanese writers to be awarded the Nobel Prize.

Young writers of the 50s and 60s reflected the sentiments of young people disillusioned with the existing order of things. His most famous novel, “Sunny Season,” quickly became a bestseller. A film with the same name was made based on it. The appearance and behavior of the main character became a role model for the youth of these years, who were attracted by the protest against the falsehood and hypocrisy of the world around them.

In the early 50s, the young writer Mishima Yukio gained popularity. He was a representative of the new modernist trend, with an apology for human alienation and pessimism, disbelief in man's active life position, and the elevation of mental impairment to the sophistication of feelings. His most famous work was the novel “The Golden Temple,” in which the hero, a mentally disabled man, first bows to a beautiful work of architecture, then burns it, considering beauty and life incompatible.

The beginning of the writing career of one of the most famous writers of post-war Japan, Abe Kobo, also dates back to the 50s. The work that made him famous was the satirical story “The Wall,” which was awarded the Akutagawa Ryunosuke Literary Prize. In the first half of the 60s, he published the novels “Woman in the Sands”, “Alien Face”, “Burnt Map”, in which he uses allegory, parable, and philosophical forms of storytelling.

Thus, the development of literature in the 50s and 60s went in two directions. In the 50s, the hero of literary works denies the past of his country, although he is powerless to change anything in its development. In the 60s, a hero appears, looking for his place in society and, not finding it, arriving at loneliness, alienation, and spiritual emptiness.

In the subsequent period of development of Japanese literature, the ideas of the chosenness of the Japanese people intensified. Frank propaganda of Japaneseism and militarism becomes the most important part of Mishima Yukio’s work. If in the 50s he interpreted plays for the Noh theater in a modern manner, then already in the mid-60s he began to openly glorify samurai virtues and demanded the revival of the divinity of the emperor as a fetish for the worship of new generations of Japanese (essay “Sun and Iron”). . In his reflections on the chosenness of the nation, he came to recognize the ideas of Hitlerism (the play “My Brother Hitler”). However, not content with just propaganda, Mishima created the far-right paramilitary organization “Shield Society” with his own funds. In November 1970, he attempted a military coup. Having received no support, he committed suicide in the traditional way - seppuku. This fact entered the cultural history of Japan as the last evidence of adherence to the military code of honor - “Bushido”.

Architecture and fine arts

The development of post-war Japanese architecture followed complex and ambiguous paths. During the war, the housing stock of almost all major cities in Japan was destroyed. Therefore, the problem of housing construction turned out to be paramount. Due to the lack of a clear plan, construction was carried out spontaneously, without taking into account the urgent needs of the city. Only in the second half of the 50s was a development strategy developed. The solution to the housing crisis was to be facilitated by the construction of microdistricts (danti) with multi-apartment residential buildings. Apartments in four- to five-story buildings (apato) in these areas had a “Western” type of layout and interior. In addition to planning, Japanese builders actively began to use materials that were new to them, for example, concrete. But even such low-comfort housing was available only to average-income Japanese. Most of the housing stock was still made up of traditional wooden ones (without baths, kitchens and often without sewerage).

The housing problem worsened even more in the 60s, when high rates of economic growth and intensive construction of industrial enterprises caused virtually uncontrolled urbanization of the country. This explains why the construction of such houses, originally conceived as a temporary measure, was continued and even became the main direction in solving the housing problem.

The 50-60s were a period of searching for the most rational forms and methods of reconstructing the city, which largely preserved the features of the feudal heritage - wooden housing stock, devoid of household amenities, and narrow streets.

As in all other areas of culture, architects were faced with the problem of combining the demands of modern society with traditional style. One of the successful attempts to solve this problem was the construction of so-called public houses (dormitories). Buildings with a reinforced concrete frame, functional in their essence, were at the same time, in their aesthetic appearance and structural system, close to the national house - its frame structure with non-load-bearing walls. The traditional connection between the external and internal space was now carried out using large glazed surfaces. Clear forms, strict proportions, harmony of Western and Japanese styles characterize the work of Japanese architects of these years (Maekawa Kunio, Sakakura Junzo, Taniguchi Yoshiro, Togo Murano and younger architects Tange Kenzo, Otaka Masato, Otani Sachio, Yokoyama Kimio). Among the architectural monuments of these years, one cannot fail to mention the Museum of Contemporary Art in Kamakura (architect Sakakura Junzo), a complex of buildings in the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park (Tange Kenzo), the National Science Museum in Tokyo (Taniguchi Yoshiro), a library and concert hall in Yokohama (Maekawa Kunio).

Architectural creativity achieved significant success in the works of Tange Kenzo, who carried out the construction of sports complexes during the preparation for the 1964 Olympics. He made extensive use of the principle of traditional landscape architecture. After these events, Japanese architecture reached a new level, becoming a significant phenomenon of world culture.

The fine art of Japan in the post-war period was a reflection of the struggle between two internal trends: the influence of American culture, implanted by the occupiers, and the struggle between progressive and conservative ideas in the national culture. The art of engraving was least affected by foreign influence and retained its connection with the national artistic tradition.

In 1949, an organization was created that put forward the slogan of “Japanese folk prints” (jimmin hanga). The Society of Japanese Prints united realist artists whose main focus was social themes. The core of the society was made up of artists Ueno Makoto, Suzuki Kenji, Takidaira Jiro, Nii Hirohawa, and Iino Nobuya. Ono Tadashige worked especially actively, acting not only as an artist, but also as a critic, art critic, and one of the largest specialists in the history of engraving. His works “Black Rain” and engravings dedicated to Hiroshima: “Hiroshima”, “Waters of Hiroshima” are widely known.

The works of the major graphic artist Ueno Makoto are distinguished by great skill. His works are dedicated to the working people of Japan. The engravings “Mother’s Love”, “Thirst”, “Old Beggar” show the difficult life of the common people. For his works dedicated to the bombing of Nagasaki, the artist received the World Peace Council Prize.

Japanese theater, cinema and music

The time of significant restructuring has come for theatrical art. After a long period of difficulties, the Noh theater entered a period of sharp increase in the number of theatrical productions, in connection with the emerging trend in the public life of the country of increased attention to the national cultural tradition (classical theater, literature, applied arts, tea ceremony, ikebana, bonsai, etc.). ).

At the same time, for the first time in their history, classical theaters made an attempt to abandon traditional plays and create new texts in modern language. The Noh theater staged the play “The Notes of Chieko,” and the Kabu-ki staged a dramatization of the classic novel “The Tale of Prince Genji.” The Joruri Puppet Theater revived the production of classical plays and works of Western drama.

The situation has also changed in the new theater (shingeki), its troupes Hayyuza and Bungakuza are widely turning to world drama. The following plays were staged here: “Lysistrata” by Aristophanes, “Three Sisters”, “The Cherry Orchard” by Chekhov, “Tartuffe” by Moliere, “The Threepenny Opera” by Brecht, “Rhinoceros” by Ionescu.

In 1947–1950, the first opera troupes appeared in Japan, whose goal was to promote the art of opera and create a national opera. The Japanese became acquainted with European ballet only in 1922, during the tour of the Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova. Then there were attempts to organize a national ballet school. In 1958, a ballet association was created with the goal of uniting various ballet troupes and assisting them in staging performances.

The 50-60s became the time of the so-called independent movement, which determined the development of Japanese cinema. The first film distribution company appeared in 1950 and in just a few years established its independence in the cultural life of the country. This made it possible to produce films that, in terms of the breadth and boldness of their presentation of social problems, were fundamentally different from previously released films.

These years saw the active work of several directors, including Kurosawa Akira, Mizoguchi Kenji, Imai Tadashi, young directors Imamura Shohei, Masumura Yasuzo and others. Kurosawa's famous films of this period are “To Live” (awarded at the Cannes International Film Festival) - about loyalty to human duty, “At the Bottom” based on the play by M. Gorky. Kurosawa's films brought fame to the talented actor Mifune Toshiro, who plays in almost all of the director's films. During these years, films based on the works of classics of Japanese literature (Ihara Saikaku) were staged. Such films tend to follow the concept of national aesthetics and traditional methods of artistic expression. This specificity of Japanese films made them extremely interesting for world cinematography.

The film adaptation of Noma Hiroshi's novel “The Void Zone” directed by Yamamoto Satsuo was extremely famous. The film shows the Japanese military and its morals, the suffocating atmosphere of cruelty that turns the imperial army into a zone of emptiness where there is no place for a normal person.

Japanese filmmakers have been producing many films these years. Famous directors and actors founded independent companies: Kurosawa-pro, Ishihara-pro, Mifune-pro, etc. The number of films increased from 215 in 1950 to 547 in 1960. However, from the beginning of the 60s, the position of the film industry began to be greatly undermined by the developing television.

Nevertheless, during these years the most famous films of talented directors were released, such as films by director Teshigahara Hiroshi, who adapted several of Abe Kobo’s novels - “The Trap”, “Woman in the Sands”, “Alien Face” and “The Burnt Map”, “Red Beard” » Kurosawa, Imai Tadashi's film "A Tale of the Cruelty of Bushido".

The culture of Japan in the 70s and 80s was characterized by the strengthening of trends that had developed in previous decades. Through the efforts of the media, the so-called mass culture is formed, the essence of which is the endless consumption of cultural values. Consumer standards and ideals developed tendencies in society towards alienation and dehumanization of the individual.

The musical art of Japan dates back several centuries of development. Folk songs are still common in the modern world. In their origin, they mainly relate to former religious hymns and other musical themes accompanying rituals. Subsequently, they lost their original functions and now act as monuments of folklore. Among peasants, they are often performed during leisure hours. In addition, the media contributed a lot to the popularization of this genre and the loss of its original roots. In the 20th century, many Japanese composers, inspired by traditional tunes, created many imitative works.

Japanese popular music is currently attracting the most attention from people. Among young people there are a huge number of lovers of Western music: jazz, Latin American pop, rock music. Songs popular in Europe quickly become known to the Japanese public, which determines the influence of Western music on the development of modern Japanese musical art. There is also Japanese popular music that grew out of national soil: kayokyouku. The heyday of this genre occurred in the 20s of the 20th century. Musically, this style now represents a kind of synthesis of traditional Western melodic music and specific Japanese techniques.

Like the rest of the world, Japan fell under the influence of the Beatles. A broad movement developed that emulated the Fab Four. Quite a few amateur groups were formed, which could not but affect the further development of the Japanese stage.

Anime

One of the most popular achievements of Japanese culture of the 20th century was the art of manga and anime. For the European understanding, it is common to consider manga as Japanese comics, and anime as Japanese animation. In fact, these terms serve to somehow highlight the specifically Japanese understanding of these two genres. The peculiarities of the Buddhist-Shinto mentality of the Japanese nation determined the significant difference between their “comics” and “cartoons” from similar works of European countries, in particular America and France. Russia in its consciousness is closer to Christian countries, and therefore we do not always have access to a full understanding of the content of Japanese animation. Even if it sometimes seems similar to the American or French, the underlying cultural differences are visible even to laymen. The need for special terms for Japanese animation is also explained by the importance attached to it in its homeland. If in our country cartoons are traditionally viewed as something secondary to cinema, and comics are not considered art at all, then in Japan the situation is exactly the opposite. Many film artists began by dubbing anime, directors by creating anime, and illustrators by creating manga. Needless to say, Japan is the only country that has nominated a feature-length animated film for the Oscar nomination for Best Foreign Film. If in other countries cartoons often lose the battle with television series and films, then in Japan it’s the other way around: TV channels stage whole battles for the right to show this or that anime series. There is no doubt that anime has significantly influenced the development of modern popular culture in Japan. Pop artists are made up in anime style, videos of many popular music stars are created in the form of anime, and so on. However, it would be wrong to underestimate the influence of anime on Western cultures. And Japanese samurai, and Japanese elves, and even Japanese cowboys - all this is Japan’s contribution to the treasury of world culture. In addition, anime and manga are an excellent tool for those who want to get acquainted with the peculiarities of the Japanese mentality. Of course, this can be done in another way: by getting acquainted with the monuments of ancient Japanese writing, studying religious treatises and trying to understand the symbolism of ikebana and the tea ceremony, but all this is quite tedious and requires incredible patience and love for Japan in order to complete what has been started. Anime in this regard is unique in that it allows you to combine business with pleasure. After watching a certain number of Japanese cartoons, you will not only get incredible aesthetic pleasure (and if you are interested in Japan, then this should definitely happen), but you will also be able to finally understand the intricacies of the Japanese worldview.

Of course, for this to become possible, a certain amount of knowledge is needed. But now, when the art of anime finds an increasing response in the souls of our compatriots and various associations of anime fans are being created, getting to know some basic concepts is not so difficult. There would be a desire...

If you are already familiar with this culture and have a fairly decent understanding of its “wilds,” then the material that will be presented below is unlikely to be a discovery for you. But if you have only recently discovered this wonderful world, if you have only seen a few cartoons, but they shocked you to the core, and you would like to comprehend all the depths of their content, then we will be happy to lift the veil of mystery for you, the name of which is - anime.

First of all, as you already understood if you carefully read our book, Japanese culture as a whole is characterized by increased attention to symbolism. Take, for example, the performances of classical Noh or Kabuki theaters, where the correct understanding of the entire content of the play depends on the interpretation of any gesture, glance, and even sigh. Or the traditional art of illustration (by the way, the direct ancestor of manga), where the choice of a particular color, pose of the depicted person or objects surrounding him could say a lot not only about his mental state, but also about his attitude to certain events. Naturally, first manga, and then anime, could not miss this opportunity to meaningfully saturate their plots. As a result, the figurative system of manga and anime, which has absorbed not only the traditional heritage, but also all the diversity of modern realities of Japanese life, is unusually complex and diverse. There is also an increased attention to detail in this art: any stroke can say a lot to an enlightened viewer. Naturally, for the Japanese, who have absorbed all this knowledge with their mother’s milk, the interpretation of these works does not present any particular difficulties. In Japan, anime is traditionally a genre intended for children, which, in general, is logical, considering that these are cartoons. We, as people who are far from Japanese culture, have to strain quite hard to appreciate anime in all its glory. A detailed guide to anime interpretation would take up too much space, and there's no point in it. If you have watched these cartoons in sufficient detail, you have probably noticed that hair color usually indicates the character of the hero, and the size of the eyes indicates age, etc. The main thing in this matter is to pay attention to everything that happens on the screen, and comparison of what you have already seen with what you see at the moment. So gradually you will not only master the world of anime, but also gain much important knowledge in the field of culture and history of both ancient and modern Japan, because many anime were created on the basis of significant historical events. If you do not intend to dig so deep, then the aesthetic pleasure that you get when watching will be enough for you: bright and colorful, they have never left anyone indifferent. Have a nice time!

The orderliness of feudal Japan was disrupted by the squadron of the American Admiral Perry in 1854. He forced the government to allow Americans into 2 port cities. The Russians, British and French did not fail to take advantage of the slightly opened loophole. The presence of foreigners led to the loss of Japan's customs independence.

The government's policies caused discontent, which led to the assassination of the head of government. The authority of the shogunate was seriously damaged. Resistance escalated into armed confrontation with the British in 1863, and three years later a secret alliance was formed to restore imperial rule.

In November 1867, the 15-year-old Emperor Meiji ascended the throne. The Meiji Restoration promoted the adoption of military and political systems along Western lines. A constitution was adopted. At the turn of the 20th century, Japan extended dominance in the Yellow and Sea of ​​Japan and annexed Korea, Taiwan and the southern part of Sakhalin.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Japanese moved away from democracy towards militarism. Participation in the First World War, on the side of the Entente, made it possible to expand the borders of the empire and strengthen its influence in the Pacific region.

In 1931, the Japanese army invaded Manchuria. After condemnation of the actions by the League of Nations, Japan withdrew from its membership. International isolation and expansionist aspirations pushed Japan to cooperate with Nazi Germany. In 1936, Japan signed a pact with Germany directed against the Comintern. In 1941, Japan became an ally of Germany and Italy, joining the Axis countries. In 1941, Japan signed a neutrality pact with the USSR and pledged to respect the inviolability of Manchuria and Mongolia.

The conquered Chinese territories in 1895 did not satisfy the appetites of the empire. In 1937, the second Sino-Japanese War began. The invasion of China caused a negative reaction in the world. The United States imposes an oil embargo against Japan. Relations between Japan and the United States were strained to the limit.

In early December 1941, Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, the base of the US Pacific Fleet. At the same time, the Philippines, Malacca and Hong Kong are annexed. On December 8, 1941, the US Congress declared war on Japan. The United States entered World War II.

Japan's dominance in the Pacific theater of operations did not last long. Recovering from Pearl Harbor, the Americans defeated the Japanese fleet in the Coral Sea. Japan was forced to go on the defensive. By this time, she could not count on significant help from the Axis countries, since Germany was thoroughly bogged down on the territory of the USSR.

After the fall of Berlin and the surrender of Germany in May 1945, active military operations by the countries of the Anti-Hitler Coalition against Japan began. In July 1945, the emperor received an ultimatum demanding surrender, but rejected it. Soviet troops begin military operations in Mongolia and China.

On August 6, 1945, an atomic bomb was dropped on the city of Hiroshima, which razed the city to the ground. The same fate befell Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. On September 2, 1945, the signature of a Japanese representative appears on the Instrument of Surrender.

The collapse forced Japan to adopt a new constitution in 1947, which declared liberal democracy and a policy of pacifism. In 1952, the San Francisco Peace Treaty was signed, putting an end to Japan's militaristic past. In 1956, Japan became a member of the UN.

The change in priorities led the Japanese economy to prosperity until 1991. From 1991 to 2000, the Japanese economy was hit by a crisis, from which it emerged with flying colors. Japan is now a leader in high technology.

Japan 19th century - our time. The history of the creation of the Japanese Empire.

In the second half of the 18th century, ships from Russia, England, the USA and France began to periodically appear in the waters near the Japanese archipelago, which competed for control over the Asian colonies.

The Japanese government continued its course of isolation and rejected the creation of diplomatic ties with these states. In 1825, the Japanese government issued decrees aimed at strengthening maritime security, but could not resist foreign influence for long.

Fall of the Shogunate

In June 1853, the US navy under the leadership of Matthew Perry approached the Japanese shores, which forced the Japanese to receive a message from the US President calling for trade relations. The head of the Japanese government, Abe Masahiro, guaranteed a response within a year and assembled a council of the aristocracy to discuss this demand. However, they did not come to a common opinion on this issue, and the fact that they were convened shook the authority of the shogunate. In January 1854, Perry again sailed to the Japanese Islands and, through intimidation of invasion, achieved Japanese acceptance of US terms. In accordance with the agreement, Japan opened two ports for American ships, and in addition, allowed the creation of American missions and settlements in them. A short time later, similar agreements were drawn up with the Russians (Treaty of Shimoda), the British and the French. In 1858, the Japanese government again yielded to European countries and signed the unequal Ansei contracts, which removed customs sovereignty from Japan.

Japanese print of Perry (center)

As a result of political defeats and inflation, a protest public association “Long live the Emperor, down with the barbarians!” was formed in Japan. Its leadership was persecuted by the shogunate. Among those repressed were the philosophers Yoshida Shoin and Tokugawa Nariaki. In retaliation, in 1860, the opposition killed the head of the government, the instigator of repression, which is why the authority of the shogunate fell again.

The centers of protest against the government were the western provinces of Choshu Han and Satsuma Han. Against the backdrop of xenophobic beliefs, they launched the Shimonoseki and Satsuma-British wars in 1863, but were defeated. Realizing that Japan was far behind Europe and the United States in technical terms and, having comprehended the threat of colonization, the provinces began to modernize their troops and negotiate with the emperor’s house. In 1864, to pacify the rebels, the shogunate launched the first punitive expedition against Choshu and changed his leadership. But a year later, a revolution occurred in the province, and the opposition took power into their own hands again. In 1866, with the support of Sakamoto Ryoma, Choshu and Satsuma created a secret coalition whose task was to overthrow the shogunate and revive the rule of the emperor. This helped defeat the second punitive expedition sent by the shogun to Choshu.

In 1866, the inexperienced Tokugawa Yoshinobu assumed the title of shogun. However, after the death of Emperor Komei, his fourteen-year-old son Meiji ascended the throne. The shogun sought to establish a new government instead of the shogunate, which would consist of the Kyoto nobility and provincial rulers, in which he himself would become prime minister. To do this, he renounced the title of shogun and on November 9, 1867 returned full rule to the Emperor. The anti-shogunate alliance took advantage of this, and on November 3, 1868, it unilaterally created a new leadership and, on behalf of the emperor, issued a decree to re-establish the reign of the emperor. The Tokugawa Shogunate was destroyed, and the ex-shogun lost power and lands. This coup ended the Edo period and the five-hundred-year dominance of the samurai in the Japanese government.

Shimonoseki War

Yoshinobu's Abdication

Meiji Restoration, Japan 19th century

Using the European judicial, legislative and military systems as a model, the Japanese government founded the Privy Council, prepared the Meiji Constitution for approval, and convened the Senate. The Meiji Restoration transformed Japan into a global industrial empire. After triumph in the Sino-Japanese (1894-1895) and Russian-Japanese (1904-1905) wars, Japan guaranteed itself supremacy in the Japanese and Yellow Seas and captured Taiwan, Korea and southern Sakhalin.

Empire of Japan, Japan early 20th century

At the beginning of the 20th century, Taisho's short period of democracy gave way to militarism and expansionism. Japan entered World War I on the side of the Entente, increasing its territory and political authority. In 1931, supporting the course of territorial expansion, it captured Manchuria and founded the puppet country of Manchukuo. After the Lytton Report in 1933, the League of Nations condemned her actions and Japan defiantly withdrew from the League. In 1936, the Empire of Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, and in 1941 joined the Axis coalition. At the same time, Japan signed the Neutrality Pact between the USSR and Japan, guaranteeing the territorial unity and untouchability of Manchukuo and the Mongolian People's Republic.

In 1937, Japan attacks China, starting the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), after which the United States establishes an oil embargo against Japan. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and announced the beginning of military action against the United States and Great Britain. After this, the United States is drawn into World War II. Japan captured the Philippines, Hong Kong, and Malacca but lost naval supremacy in 1942 due to defeat at the Battle of the Coral Sea. After the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, and after the USSR entered the war against Japan, on September 2, 1945, the emperor accepted an act of unconditional surrender.

Nuclear explosion over Nagasaki

Consequences of the bombing of Hiroshima

Battle in the Coral Sea

Attack on Pearl Harbor

Post-war period - present

In 1947, the Japanese government issued a new constitution that proclaimed liberal democracy. The Allied occupation of Japan ended with the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1952, and Japan joined the UN in 1956. Subsequently, Japan experienced an unprecedented economic expansion that lasted 40 years and amounted to approximately 10% per year. In 1991, progress gave way to economic decline, which was only overcome in 2000.

Tokyo, our time

Article genre - History of Japan

For quite a long period of time, Japan's foreign policy was based on relations only with nearby countries - China and Korea. The beginning of the 16th century changed the vision of the Japanese. Missionaries from Portugal and Spain brought Christianity to the country. However, after some time, everything changed radically. The beginning of the 17th century was characterized by the almost complete isolation of Japan from trade relations with European countries. The Tokugawa shogunate, fearing that Japan would be subject to colonial conquest, adopted many decrees according to which trade was maintained only with China and Holland, and Christianity was expelled from the state.

Japan remained isolated for two hundred years, and then established relations with Russia, America, France and England. Isolated from the rest of the world, Japan tried to make up for lost time by rapidly adopting knowledge in the field of industry and jurisprudence from European countries.

Japanese foreign policy in the 19th century

At the beginning of the century, Japan continued to stay apart from European states. Significant changes in foreign policy began to occur after 1854, when Japan signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship with America. Later, a similar agreement was approved with Russia, it was called the “Simoda Treaty”. After these two events, Japan began to establish trade relations with many other European countries.

The introduction of a large number of imported goods into the country had a great influence on the domestic policy of the state. The workshops of Japanese artisans and manufacturers began to suffer significant losses, which gave rise to public unrest. In this regard, the beginning of the bourgeois Meiji revolution was laid, the main goal of which was the overthrow of the shogunate.

The second half of the 19th century was characterized by the modernization of Japan. Great efforts were made to ensure that Japan became one of the most powerful states in East Asia. At the end of the 19th century this was achieved. The desire for dominance pushed Japan into an armed battle with China, which took place in 1894-1895. In this battle, Japan won an unquestioned victory. The outcome of the war had an effect on the industrial activities of the state and gaining access to the Chinese market. After this, Japan began to revise the terms of treaties with states in the West.

Japanese foreign policy in the 20th century

At the end of the First World War, Japan was one of the countries that won. She made many acquisitions through victories over the countries of the Pacific Ocean and the Far East. The morale of the Japanese army continued to grow stronger, fueling interest in new battles and victories.

Japan's foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century was affected by the consequences of the global economic crisis. The blow fell primarily on America, which at that time had close economic relations with Japan. The large-scale earthquake of 1923 and the agrarian crisis within the state played a certain role in this situation.

The consequences that developed against the backdrop of the crisis period pushed Japan to take active action. The main option for solving this situation was the Tanaka Memorandum program, which was based on inciting conflicts with mainland countries. One of the main stages of the program was the capture of Northeast China.

In the second half of the 20th century, Japan was drawn into World War II. The main opponents of the state were the USA and the USSR, and Japan was defeated in both battles. Japan's foreign policy after World War II was significantly undermined. America took over the bulk of the government functions of the state. Foreign trade, justice, control of the state budget and the rule of parliament were carried out under the direction of American authorities. It was not in the interests of the United States to abandon the Potsdam Declaration and oppose the Japanese people, who advocated democracy in the country. Communication with other countries could not be established directly by Japan; it was in the hands of the occupation authorities. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs played a symbolic role; it had no rights, it only maintained contact between the occupying forces and state headquarters. Of all the political parties in the state, there was only one - the Great Japan Political Association. But after the capitulation, other, young parties began to appear.

Japan's industry suffered little in the post-war period. Major production cuts affected only industries that satisfy the consumer demand of the population. In the first time after the occupation, Japan lagged behind other countries in its industrial development, but the United States provided Japan with economic assistance, which also played a role in the restoration of state forces.

The years 1949-1950 are characterized for Japan by the implementation of land reform. The agrarian question has always been the most acute. The Japanese government could not allow the democratic transformation of agriculture by peasants. Therefore, the reform was carried out through parliamentary means. According to the reform, the lands of the landowners were purchased by the state and then sold by the peasants. People renting land from landowners had a special advantage. Despite the fact that the reform led to some changes, it was not able to completely solve the agrarian question.

Over the past 70 years, Japan has been actively seeking to improve its position in the global space. Japan's modern foreign policy is based mainly on the destruction of stereotypes that developed after the Second World War. The main tactic that the state practices is cultural diplomacy. Japan is trying to get rid of the stigma of being an aggressor and a defeated country. The main goals that Japan set for itself were successfully achieved.

By the beginning of the 20th century. Japan has approached rapidly developing

Economic

emerging state with a powerful capitalist

development by the industrial sector, but which has many

numerous feudal remnants, especially in agriculture and the social sphere.

Japanese monopolies were closely associated with landowners and the monarchy. It is characteristic that many Japanese corporations grew out of old merchant monopoly trade and money-lending houses that arose in the feudal era. The Japanese bourgeoisie used such forms of pre-capitalist exploitation as bonded contracting of children and female workers, a system of forced semi-prison-type dormitories, etc. The poverty and landlessness of the Japanese peasantry ensured a constant flow of cheap labor into enterprises. As a result, the standard of living of workers in Japan was significantly lower than in other capitalist countries, and approached the standard of living in colonies and dependent countries. Receiving large subsidies from the state mainly through taxes squeezed out of the peasants, the monopoly bourgeoisie directly participated in the semi-feudal exploitation of the peasantry. Japanese monopolies used feudal remnants in order to obtain super-profits and were interested in preserving them. The existence of a large number of feudal remnants determined the financial and economic weakness of Japanese capitalism in comparison with more developed capitalist countries.

Nevertheless, the industrial boom was accompanied by a strong concentration of capital and the growth of monopolistic associations. The global economic crisis of 1900 played a major role in the development of Japanese capitalism into the monopoly stage. The crisis contributed to the absorption of small and medium-sized enterprises by large associations. After the crisis, monopolies spread rapidly in Japan. At the same time, there was a process of merging banking and industrial capital. The predominant form of monopolistic associations of financial capital were concerns (zaibatsu). Such major monopolies as Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Yasuda, concentrated a significant share of the country's national wealth.

An important factor contributing to the growth of monopolies was colonial expansion. Such an important feature of monopoly capitalism as the export of capital also appeared. Japanese firms invested in Korea, Taiwan and mainland China.

The internal political situation of Japan. Russo-Japanese War

The internal political life of the country was characterized by a constant struggle between representatives of the ruling circles, acting as spokesmen for the interests of old or emerging new social strata. The result of this struggle was a gradual transfer of power from the aristocratic bureaucracy to political parties, reflecting the strengthening of the position of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie and being a consequence of the development of Japan after the Meiji Revolution.

Traditionally, after the revolution of 1867-1868. actual power was in the hands of the clan oligarchy (hambatsu) and the court aristocracy, who occupied the main government positions. By the beginning of the 20th century. The greatest influence among the oligarchs who conceived and carried out the Meiji reforms were Ito Hirobumi (1841-1909), known as the creator of the Japanese constitution, and Yamagata Aritomo (1838-1922), a major military leader and organizer of the new Japanese army.

Economically strengthened after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. The bourgeoisie, trying to gain more political rights and actively influence the state course, sought to strengthen its position in political parties, primarily in the Constitutional Party (Kenseito), created in 1898 after the merger of the Liberal and Progressive parties. Representatives of the bureaucracy also began to understand that in order to better control the constitutional system, interaction with the political parties represented in parliament was necessary.

Preparing for a war with a more dangerous enemy than already defeated China - Russia for the redistribution of spheres of influence in Korea and North-East China, Japanese military circles counted on carrying out a large-scale militarization program. With the support of the emperor, Marshal Yamagata passed a law according to which ministers of war and naval could be appointed only from among the highest-ranking officers in military service. Thus making the government dependent on military circles, Yamagata carried out the financial measures necessary for the militarization program.

The opposing Yamagata group was created by Ito Hirobumi, who relied on the support of part of the bourgeoisie associated with agriculture and therefore dissatisfied with the increase in land tax as a source of financing the military program. Some industrial concerns also joined Ito. In 1900, Ito created the Seiyukai Party (Society of Political Friends), which included some members of parliament, officials, and representatives of large joint-stock companies. Ito's strengthening position forced Yamagata to resign as prime minister.

However, already in 1901, the cabinet was headed by Katsura Taro (1847-1913), a prominent representative of military circles and Yamagata’s protege. His government has stepped up preparations for a military clash with Russia. In 1902, it concluded an anti-Russian military-political treaty with Great Britain and obtained financial support from the United States.

Despite some differences between the government and the opposition regarding the financing of preparations for war, they were united in supporting its goals, and this unity only strengthened as the Japanese-Russian contradictions grew.

In the war of 1904-1905. Japan inflicted heavy defeats on Russia on land and at sea. The readiness of the Russian Empire for further struggle was undermined by internal revolutionary events. Japan turned out to be so economically and financially exhausted that it hurried to consolidate the results already achieved during the war. Under the Treaty of Portsmouth (September 1905), it received “exclusive rights” in Korea, lands leased by Russia on the Liaodong Peninsula, the South Manchurian Railway and the southern part of Sakhalin Island.

Strengthening the position of monopoly capital. Japanese foreign policy after the Russo-Japanese War

Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 marked the completion of the development of Japanese capitalism into imperialism. The outcome of the war gave the Japanese a free hand in Korea. In November 1905, a treaty was imposed on the Korean government that established a Japanese protectorate. In 1910, Korea was annexed and turned into a Japanese colony, despite the stubborn resistance of the Korean people, as a result of which, in particular, the first Governor-General of Korea, Ito Hirobumi, was killed.

Having captured the Kwantung region, Japan established itself in Southern Manchuria. In 1909, Japan strengthened its troops there and imposed new agreements on railway construction on China. Consolidation in Southern Manchuria was considered by the Japanese government as a step towards further aggression in China, which intensified during the Xinhai Revolution in that country. Although the financial situation after the Russo-Japanese War was difficult, the victory and the capture of new markets revived the industry. In the first post-war year alone, more than 180 new industrial and commercial joint-stock companies emerged. And although in 1907-1908. Japanese industry experienced a recession caused by another global economic crisis, then a new boom began, which lasted almost until the outbreak of the First World War. The value of gross output of Japanese industry increased from 780 million yen in 1909 to 1372 million yen in 1914.

The Russo-Japanese War, as well as the continued militarization of the country, contributed to the development of heavy industry. There was a technical re-equipment of industry, further concentration of production and centralization of capital took place. But Japan still remained an agrarian-industrial country with a predominant rural population.

The emergence of Japan as a major colonial power changed the balance of power in the Far East. By this time, the unequal treaties of the period of “opening” of Japan had finally become an anachronism. As early as 1899, new trade treaties came into force, abolishing rights of extraterritoriality and consular jurisdiction for subjects of Western powers. And in 1911, England and the USA signed treaties with Japan that abolished all restrictions on its customs rights.

By supporting Japan, England and the United States sought to use it to weaken Russia and believed that the fruits of its victories would be reaped by more powerful British and American capital. This, however, did not happen. Japan effectively closed the South Manchurian market. The Japanese policy of expansion in China, which, in turn, was claimed by England and the United States, led to the aggravation of Japanese-English and especially Japanese-American contradictions.

Intensification of the class struggle. Labor and socialist movement

The organized labor movement arose in Japan as early as the late 1890s, when modern trade unions began to emerge. A prominent figure in the Japanese and international labor movement, Sen Katayama, played an outstanding role in their organization. Trade unions organized the publication of workers' magazines (the first was "Workers' World") and a number of strikes.

At the same time, socialist ideas were promoted. In May 1901, the Japanese Social Democratic Party was created, which was banned on the same day, according to the Law “On the Protection of Order and Tranquility” adopted in 1900. This law outlawed trade unions and effectively banned strikes. However, the socialists launched active propaganda activities. In November 1903, their leader Kotoku and other socialists founded the Society of Common People and began publishing the People's Newspaper, around which socialist revolutionary-democratic elements were grouped.

After the war and not without the influence of the Russian Revolution of 1905-1907. The strike movement intensified. It reached its highest point in 1907, when, according to official data alone, 57 major strikes were registered. The authorities declared a state of siege and sent troops against the strikers.

The government decided to crack down on the leaders of the socialist movement. In 1910, Kotoku and his wife and 24 of their comrades were arrested on false charges of organizing a conspiracy against the emperor. In January 1911, Kotoku and 11 of his comrades were executed, the rest were sent to hard labor. After World War II, when some archives were opened, it became known that the accusation was fabricated.

On the eve of the First World War, despite harsh police terror, the strike movement revived again. In 1913, 47 strikes were registered in Japan, and in 1914 - 50 strikes. Along with the workers, there was a rise in the democratic movement, reflecting the dissatisfaction of the broad masses with political lack of rights, heavy taxes, etc. The main demand of this movement, which resulted in numerous demonstrations, was universal suffrage. The struggle within the ruling camp also intensified.

In August 1914, Japan entered the war with the Kaiser's Germany on the side of the Entente, but carried out almost no military operations. She took advantage of the favorable situation to seize German possessions in the Far East and oust other capitalist countries engaged in the war in Europe from Asian markets. This led to the accelerated growth of Japanese industry and the further strengthening of the positions of big capital in the economy and domestic politics.

Japan's main efforts were aimed at expansion in China. In 1915, she captured the province of Shandong and presented an ultimatum to China with a number of demands that violated its sovereignty, but were mostly accepted by it.

At the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919, Japan achieved the transfer to it, in addition to Shandong, of the mandate for the Caroline, Marshall,

The Mariana Islands, which were previously the possession of Germany. This concession was made to her in anticipation of her active participation in the intervention against Soviet Russia.

Japan after the First

world war. Washington Conference

After the end of the First World War, Japan took large-scale actions to seize Russian Primorye, Eastern Siberia, and northern Sakhalin. These actions were characterized by cruelty towards civilians and plunder of occupied territories. However, as a result of the actions of the Red Army and the increasingly widespread partisan struggle, the Japanese interventionists were expelled in 1922 from Siberia and the Far East. They liberated the northern part of Sakhalin only in 1925, after the establishment of diplomatic relations between Japan and the USSR.

The advantages gained by Japan during World War I were largely erased by the Washington Conference of 1921-1922. It was organized by the United States, which was increasingly fearful of the strengthening of Japan. In addition to these two countries, the conference was attended by Great Britain, France, Italy, Holland, Belgium and Portugal, as well as China.

At the conference, a number of agreements on China were signed, strengthening the position of the United States and European countries at the expense of Japan. The USA secured Great Britain's refusal from the alliance with Japan and the return of Shandong to China. Japan was also forced to agree to limit its naval armaments (in terms of tonnage) in comparison with the USA and Great Britain in a ratio of 3:5.

"Rice riots"

Rise of the democracy movement

The post-war strengthening of Japan's position in China and in the markets of other countries of the Far East led to a significant increase in industry and trade and provided huge profits to monopolistic companies - zaibatsu. At the same time, the growth of the Japanese war and post-war economy also had a downside - the continuously increasing exploitation of the working class and the robbery of the peasantry, which, in turn, intensified the class struggle. Its spontaneous manifestation was the so-called “rice riots,” caused by speculators inflating rice prices in August 1918.

In a short time, the “rice riots” covered two-thirds of Japan, turning into revolutionary demonstrations of workers and the urban poor with about 10 million participants. The popular movement swept through large cities - Osaka, Kobe, Nagoya, Tokyo, and spread to the mines of Kyushu, steel mills and shipyards of the Mitsubishi concern. Thus, the widespread participation of industrial workers raised the initially spontaneous “rice riots” to a higher level of struggle, which in some cases developed into an armed uprising. The government brutally dealt with participants in the “rice riots.” More than 8 thousand people were arrested, thousands were killed without trial. All publications about the “rice riots” were prohibited, and all books and magazines containing materials about them were subject to confiscation.

Post-war economic crisis of 1920-1921. hit the Japanese economy, dependent on foreign markets, and exacerbated social contradictions. At this stage, the growth of the socialist and general democratic movement was also facilitated by changes that took place in the socio-economic structure of the country. During the war years, the proportion of qualified skilled workers in the Japanese proletariat increased significantly, especially in heavy industry.

Repressions against strikers encouraged workers to strive not only to create trade unions, but also to unite them. At the beginning of 1920, the United League of Trade Unions was created. A connection was established between trade unions and the socialist movement, and along with economic demands, political slogans began to be put forward. At the end of 1920, the Socialist League was created, uniting ideologically diverse groups and organizations (socialists, anarchists, communists), and in July 1922 in Tokyo, representatives of socialist groups, led by Katayama and Tokuda, proclaimed the creation of the Communist Party of Japan (CPJ). ).

However, the activities of the CPJ, as well as the Social Democratic movement as a whole, proceeded from the very beginning in very difficult conditions. Small in number and without broad connections with the masses, these movements were often forced to work underground.

On September 1, 1923, a powerful earthquake occurred in Japan. It resulted in tens of thousands of casualties and enormous material damage, estimated at 5.5 billion yen. Taking advantage of the general confusion following the earthquake, the Japanese government launched a crackdown on leftist movements. In March 1924, the activities of the Communist Party were temporarily suspended.

Japan Since the end of 1923, Japan, like the entire capitalist

During the period of the New World, it experienced a period of relative economic stabilization and recovery. Revival of Japanese

stabilization of industry after the crisis and depression (1923 1929) 1920-1922 was associated with restorative

work that began after the earthquake on September 1, 1923. In the very first days after the earthquake, the government provided assistance to large entrepreneurs, deferring all types of payments and paying compensation for damage caused.

Nevertheless, Japan's economic and domestic political situation remained tense, as evidenced, in particular, by the large foreign trade liability. In Asian markets, Japanese entrepreneurs maintained their position by exporting goods at extremely low prices by increasing the exploitation of workers, which was one of the methods for monopolies to overcome difficulties.

Such “rationalization” of production provided the Japanese monopolies with super-profits obtained through the intensification of labor and the reduction of jobs.

Increased exploitation caused a new social aggravation in the country. B 1924-1926 There were strikes, notable for their tenacity, duration and large number of participants.

The situation in the agricultural sector has also worsened. Since the First World War, agriculture was in chronic crisis. The dominance of monopoly capital and the persistence of semi-feudal methods of exploitation led to a deterioration in the situation of the peasantry, to the activation of peasant unions and an increase in the number of conflicts. All this paved the way for the formation of a legal party based on leftist trade unions and the All-Japan Association of Peasant Unions. On December 1, 1925, the Peasant Workers' Party was created in Tokyo, almost immediately banned and restored in March 1926 under the name Workers' and Peasants' Party. The leaders of right-wing, reformist trade unions formed the Right-wing Socialist Party.

It is characteristic that the emergence of radical organizations and movements in Japanese society occurred against the backdrop of police repression and extremely conservative legislation. For example, taking into account the growing political activity of the masses, in 1925 a new law on universal suffrage was adopted, which was supposed to come into force in 3 years. But this law clearly limited the rights of broad sections of the population. Women, who made up more than half of the population (and the proletariat in particular), still did not have voting rights. The age limit for voters was set at 30 years, and the residency requirement was set at 1 year, which significantly reduced the number of voters among workers forced to change their place of residence in search of work, as well as peasants who moved to the city for the same purpose. Everyone receiving private or public benefits was deprived of the right to participate in elections, i.e. poor.

At the same time, the law “on the protection of public peace” was adopted and immediately came into force, popularly known as the law “on dangerous thoughts.” It provided for imprisonment or hard labor for a period of Yulet for participants in organizations with the “goal of changing the political system or destroying the system of private property.” A lot of things could fit under the term “change in the political system”, for example: the struggle for a more progressive electoral law, constitution, etc.

But, despite repression and terror, the political and economic struggle continued. In particular, on December 4, 1926, the CPJ began its activities again.

Intra-party struggle. Activities of government offices

The results of the Washington Conference, which were negative for Japan, pushed military circles and political parties towards rapprochement. Having pledged to limit its armaments, Japan could no longer directly increase its military budget, so the army needed the support of the parties and the financial and industrial circles behind it to increase military power through modernization. From this period, the practice of government by party cabinets was gradually established, bringing Japan closer to the norms of political life in Western countries.

During the next stage of the struggle in defense of the constitution, three parties - Seiyukai, Kenseito and Kakushii Kurabu (Club of Change) united to overthrow the next bureaucratic government led by Kiehara. In the elections of 1924, the coalition achieved a majority in the lower house of parliament, and the coalition cabinet was headed by Kito Takaaki. From this time until 1932, the country was governed only by party cabinets.

During this period, the role of the lower house of parliament as a body, to a greater extent than the House of Peers, representing the interests of voters, increased significantly. In addition, members of the House of Peers gradually began to be appointed not by the emperor's choice from among retired high-ranking bureaucrats, but by non-governmental organizations.

An important stage in the creation of party cabinets was the neutralization of the Privy Council, whose approval was required for the implementation of any decision. After the death of Ito Hirobumi, Yamagata was the permanent chairman of the Privy Council. Genro Saionji Kimmochi, seeking to weaken his faction, with the support of the emperor, ensured that henceforth the Privy Council would include scientists rather than bureaucrats. Now the members of the council were usually law professors from the University of Tokyo.

At the same time, parties merged with the bureaucracy. The practice of moving retired high-ranking officials to the party leadership arose. Along with the mentioned tendency towards an alliance between parties and the military, this consolidated the dominance of parties for a certain period. The difference between them boiled down to the following.

Seyukai defended the principle of freedom in financial policy, a conservative approach to solving social problems, and an aggressive continental policy. Kenseito advocated reducing budget expenditures, a relatively constructive approach to solving social problems, pursuing a foreign policy taking into account the interests of other powers, and developing foreign trade. But in general, the ruling circles during this period were unanimous on the issue of the need to pursue an expansionist policy, although there were disagreements regarding the methods, means and timing of expanding the borders of the empire, as well as the preference for northern or southern directions of expansion.

In 1927, the so-called “Nanjing Incident” occurred in China, when soldiers of Chiang Kai-shek’s army attacked foreign missions. A member of the Wakatsuki cabinet, Foreign Minister Shidehara, who was a supporter of a moderate foreign policy line, refused to condemn Chiang Kai-shek because he considered cooperation with his regime desirable for Japan. The refusal led to the fall of the Wakatsuki cabinet, and in the spring of 1927 the cabinet of General Tanaka, a supporter of an aggressive foreign and reactionary domestic policy, came to power.

Aggressive

policy

office

Tanaka put forward new principles of foreign policy, which consisted of sending Japanese troops where Japanese representatives were in danger, and also proposed separating Manchuria and Mongolia from China in order to prevent the spread of the Chinese revolution there. During these same years, a document called the “Tanaka memorandum” became known, which outlined plans for the conquest of China, India, the countries of Southeast Asia, and then Russia and even Europe. The original of this document has not yet been discovered, and therefore many Japanese and foreign researchers consider it to be fake, but the subsequent policy of Japan serves as a fairly strong justification for the opposite opinion.

Numerous and identical copies of the memorandum declared: “For the sake of self-defense and for the sake of the protection of others, Japan will not be able to eliminate the difficulties in East Asia unless it pursues a policy of “blood and iron” ... In order to conquer China, we must first conquer Manchuria and Mongolia. In order to conquer the world, we must first conquer China. If we manage to conquer China, all the other countries of Asia Minor, India, as well as the countries of the southern seas will fear us and capitulate to us.” Aggressive plans included an attack on the USSR. The growing imperialist contradictions with the main power of the capitalist world were reflected in the memorandum in the words: “...we will have to crush the United States.”

It should be noted that the rise to power of the Tanaka cabinet and its policies were determined by certain circumstances in the country's public life. In 1927, the pace of economic development slowed down, and there was even a slight decline. The already difficult situation of workers worsened: further “rationalization” of production took place, leading to mass layoffs. Proletarian political parties and trade unions led the workers' struggle against the advance of monopolies. This struggle intensified due to the fact that the government increased taxes to help failing banks and firms, thus shifting the burden of the crisis onto the shoulders of workers and peasants. The Tanaka government was called upon to “handle” the situation.

In February 1928, elections were held under the electoral law of 1925. Having dispersed parliament, which passed a vote of no confidence in him, Tanaka's cabinet held elections in an atmosphere of corruption and brutal police pressure on voters. Despite the terror and tyranny, left-wing parties received about half a million votes in the elections; The workers' and peasants' party, which acted in contact with the Communist Party of Ukraine and collected 200 thousand votes, two candidates entered parliament, one of whom, Yamomoto, was killed after his first speech.

On March 15, 1928, arrests were made in major centers - Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, and then throughout the country. These police crackdowns were called the "KPJ Incident" and the "March 15 Storm" because the first blow was directed at the KPJ. But in fact, among the many thousands of those arrested, along with members of the Communist Party, many non-communists, trade unionists and progressive-minded workers were thrown into prison. The repressions that began in the spring of 1928 continued in subsequent years, especially during the global economic crisis.