Tropes: finding and analyzing tropes. What are tropes and why are they used in literary works Lexical means of the Russian language

21.10.2020

Speech. Analysis of means of expression.

It is necessary to distinguish between paths (figurative means of expression literature) based on figurative meaning words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.

Lexical means.

Typically, in a review of assignment B8, an example of a lexical device is given in parentheses, either as one word or as a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.

synonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words close in meaning	soon - soon - one of these days - not today or tomorrow, in the near future
antonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words with opposite meanings	they never said you to each other, but always you.
phraseological units– stable combinations of words that are close in lexical meaning to one word	at the end of the world (= “far”), tooth does not touch tooth (= “frozen”)
archaisms- outdated words	squad, province, eyes
dialectism– vocabulary common in a certain territory	smoke, chatter
bookstore, colloquial vocabulary	daring, companion; corrosion, management; waste money, outback

Paths.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in parentheses, like a phrase.

Types of tropes and examples for them are in the table:

metaphor– transfer of word meaning by similarity	dead silence
personification- likening any object or phenomenon to a living being	dissuadedgolden grove
comparison– comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through conjunctions as if, as if, comparative degree of adjective)	bright as the sun
metonymy– replacing a direct name with another by contiguity (i.e. based on real connections)	The hiss of foamy glasses (instead of: foaming wine in glasses)
synecdoche– using the name of a part instead of the whole and vice versa	a lonely sail turns white (instead of: boat, ship)
paraphrase– replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition	author of “Woe from Wit” (instead of A.S. Griboyedov)
epithet– the use of definitions that give the expression figurativeness and emotionality	Where are you going, proud horse?
allegory– expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images	scales – justice, cross – faith, heart – love
hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of the described	at one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed
litotes- understatement of the size, strength, beauty of the described	your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble
irony- the use of a word or expression in a sense contrary to its literal meaning, for the purpose of ridicule	Where are you, smart one, wandering from, head?

Figures of speech, sentence structure.

In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

epiphora– repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following each other	I'd like to know. Why do I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor?
gradation– construction of homogeneous members of a sentence with increasing meaning or vice versa	I came, I saw, I conquered
anaphora– repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following each other	Irontruth - alive to envy, Ironpestle, and iron ovary.
pun– pun	It was raining and there were two students.
rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) – exclamatory, interrogative sentences or sentences with appeals that do not require a response from the addressee	Why are you standing there, swaying, thin rowan tree? Long live the sun, may the darkness disappear!
syntactic parallelism– identical construction of sentences	young people are welcome everywhere, We honor old people everywhere
multi-union– repetition of redundant conjunction	And the sling and the arrow and the crafty dagger The years are kind to the winner...
asyndeton– construction of complex sentences or a series of homogeneous members without conjunctions	The booths and women flash past, Boys, benches, lanterns...
ellipsis- omission of an implied word	I'm getting a candle - a candle in the stove
inversion– indirect word order	Our people are amazing.
antithesis– opposition (often expressed through conjunctions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms	Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin
oxymoron– a combination of two contradictory concepts	living corpse, ice fire
citation– transmission of other people’s thoughts and statements in the text, indicating the author of these words.	As it is said in the poem by N. Nekrasov: “You have to bow your head below a thin epic…”
questionably-response form presentation– the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them	And again a metaphor: “Live under minute houses...”. What does this mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction
ranks homogeneous members of the sentence– listing homogeneous concepts	A long, serious illness and retirement from sports awaited him.
parcellation- a sentence that is divided into intonational and semantic speech units.	I saw the sun. Over your head.

Remember!

When completing task B8, you should remember that you are filling in the gaps in the review, i.e. you restore the text, and with it both semantic and grammatical connections. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates consistent with the omissions, etc.

It will make it easier to complete the task and divide the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.

Analysis of the task.

(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingeniously designed that it is constantly self-renewing and thus allows billions of passengers to travel for millions of years.

(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, destroying forests, and spoiling the World Ocean. (5) If on a small spaceship the astronauts will begin to fussily cut wires, unscrew screws, and drill holes in the casing, then this will have to be classified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) The only question is size and time.

(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) They started, multiplied, and swarmed with microscopic creatures on a planetary, and even more so on a universal scale. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of a harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste.

(13) Unfortunately, as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of the so-called technical progress There are such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between a person and nature, with the beauty of our land. (14) On the one hand, a person, delayed by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, overcrowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this external world itself has been brought into such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual communication with him.

(15) It is unknown how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?

(According to V. Soloukhin)

“The first two sentences use the trope of ________. This image of the “cosmic body” and “astronauts” is key to understanding the author’s position. Reasoning about how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that “humanity is a disease of the planet.” ______ (“scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste”) convey the negative actions of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said to the author is far from indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence, ________ “original” gives the argument a sad ending that ends with a question.”

List of terms:

epithet
litotes
introductory words and plug-in structures
irony
extended metaphor
parcellation
question-and-answer form of presentation
dialectism
homogeneous members offers

We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first – epithet, litotes, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second – introductory words and inserted constructions, parcellation, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.

It is better to start completing the task with gaps that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission No. 2. Since a whole sentence is presented as an example, some kind of syntactic device is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste” series of homogeneous sentence members are used : Verbs scurrying around, multiplying, doing business, participles eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that the word in the place of the omission should be plural. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and inserted constructions and homogeneous clauses. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without loss of meaning are absent. Thus, in place of gap No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.

Blank No. 3 shows sentence numbers, which means the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parcellation can be immediately “discarded”, since authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. What remains are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in the sentences: In my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.

In place of the last blank you must substitute the term male, since the adjective “used” must be consistent with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms – epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet.

All that remains is to fill in the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences where the image of the earth and us, people, is reinterpreted as the image of a cosmic body and astronauts. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only possible option remains - metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.

Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.

Practice.

(1) As a child, I hated matinees because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, played his button accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher sternly told him: “Valery Petrovich, move up!” (3) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose was always beet red, like a clown’s. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”

(6) And I, first in kindergarten and then at school, bore the heavy cross of my father’s absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know what kind of fathers anyone has!), but I didn’t understand why he, an ordinary mechanic, came to our matinees with his stupid accordion. (8) I would play at home and not disgrace either myself or my daughter! (9) Often getting confused, he groaned thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to fall through the ground from shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.

(11) I was in third grade when I caught a bad cold. (12) I started getting otitis media. (13) I screamed in pain and hit my head with my palms. (14) Mom called an ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way, we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver, shrilly, like a woman, began to shout that now we would all freeze. (16) He screamed piercingly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) Father asked how long was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, kept repeating: “What a fool I am!” (19) Father thought and quietly said to mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain swirled around me like a snowflake in a snowstorm. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me as if a huge monster, clanging its jaws, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, and snow rustled down the frosty windows. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomedly into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.

(25) I don’t know how much time passed, but suddenly the night lit up bright light headlights, and the long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and saw my father through my eyelashes. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.

(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time afterwards he suffered from double pneumonia.

(32)…My children are perplexed why, when decorating the Christmas tree, I always cry. (33) From the darkness of the past, my father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if he secretly wants to see his daughter among the dressed-up crowd of children and smile cheerfully at her. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start crying.

(According to N. Aksyonova)

Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.

This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the blanks with numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should appear in the blank space, write the number 0.

Write down the sequence of numbers in the order in which you wrote them down in the text of the review where there are gaps in answer form No. 1 to the right of task number B8, starting from the first cell.

“The narrator’s use of such a lexical means of expression as _____ to describe the blizzard (“terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives the depicted picture expressive power, and such tropes as _____ (“pain circled me” in sentence 20) and _____ (“the driver began to scream shrilly, like a woman” in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A device such as ____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.”

The most important role in artistic speech tropes play - words and expressions used not in a literal, but in a figurative meaning. Tropes create so-called allegorical imagery in a work, when an image arises from the rapprochement of one object or phenomenon with another.

This is the most general function of all tropes - to reflect in the structure of the image a person’s ability to think by analogy, to embody, in the words of the poet, “the bringing together of distant things,” thus emphasizing the unity and integrity of the world around us. At the same time, the artistic effect of the trope, as a rule, is stronger, the farther the phenomena being brought together are separated from each other: such, for example, is Tyutchev’s likening of lightning to “deaf-mute demons.” Using this trope as an example, one can trace another function of allegorical imagery: to reveal the essence of a particular phenomenon, usually hidden, the potential poetic meaning contained in it. So, in our example, Tyutchev, with the help of a rather complex and non-obvious trope, forces the reader to take a closer look at such an ordinary phenomenon as lightning, to see it from an unexpected side. For all its complexity, the trope is very accurate: indeed, it is natural to describe the reflections of lightning without thunder with the epithet “deaf and mute.”

For literary analysis (as opposed to linguistic analysis), it is extremely important to distinguish between general linguistic tropes, that is, those that are included in the language system and are used by all its speakers, and authorial tropes, which are used once by a writer or poet in a given specific situation. Only the tropes of the second group are capable of creating poetic imagery, while the first group - general linguistic tropes - are completely for obvious reasons should not be taken into account in the analysis. The fact is that common language tropes, due to frequent and widespread use, seem to be “erased”, lose their figurative expressiveness, are perceived as a cliche and, because of this, are functionally identical to vocabulary without any figurative meaning.

Thus, in Pushkin’s line “From the surrounding mountains the snow has already fled in muddy streams” contains a common language trope - the personification of “escaped”, but when reading the text we don’t even think about it, and the author did not set such a task for himself, using something that has already lost its expressive meaning design. True, it should be noted that sometimes a common language, worn-out trope can be “refreshed” by rethinking, introducing additional meanings, etc. Thus, the common linguistic metaphor “rain - tears” is no longer impressive, but here’s how Mayakovsky rethinks this image: “Tears from the eyes, from the drooping eyes of drainpipes.” By introducing new poetic meanings (houses are personified, and drainpipes are associated with eyes), the image acquires new pictorial and expressive power.

One of the most common methods of “refreshing” a general language trope is the method of its implementation; Most often, a metaphor is realized. At the same time, the trope acquires details that seem to force the reader to perceive it not in a figurative, but in a literal sense. Let us give two examples from the work of Mayakovsky, who often used this technique. The poem “Cloud in Pants” implements the common linguistic metaphor “nerves were diverging”:

like a sick person out of bed,

the nerve jumped.

First I walked

barely,

then he ran in

excited,

Now he and the new two

They rush about with desperate tap dancing.

The plaster on the lower floor collapsed.

small,

are jumping madly,

The nerves make your legs give way!

Another example: the implementation of the metaphorical expression “making a molehill out of a molehill.” It is clear that in the general language “elephant” no specifics are assumed: it is not a real, but a metaphorical elephant, and Mayakovsky gives it exactly the features of a real elephant: “He makes an elephant out of a fly and sells the ivory.” The metaphorical elephant cannot have any ivory, it is simply a designation, a sign of something very large as opposed to something very small - a fly. Mayakovsky gives the elephant concreteness, thereby making the image unexpected, arresting attention and producing a poetic impression.

In the analysis of a specific work, it is important not only and not so much to analyze this or that trope (although this can also be useful so that students understand the mechanism of action of an artistic micro-image), but to evaluate how allegorical imagery is characteristic of of this work or a given writer, how important it is in the overall figurative system, in the formation of the artistic style.

Thus, Lermontov or Mayakovsky are characterized by a frequent and regular use of tropes, while for Pushkin and Tvardovsky, for example, on the contrary, a rare and sparing use of allegorical imagery; there the figurative system is built using other means.

There are quite a large number of varieties of tropes; Since you can read about them in educational and reference publications, we will simply list the most important ones here without definitions or examples. So, the tropes include: comparison, metaphor, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, symbol, irony (not to be confused with the typological variety of pathos!), oxymoron (or oxymoron), periphrasis, etc.

Fine and expressive means of language allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical means of expression make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of yourself, a product, or a company without using special language tools.

The word is the basis of visual expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in their direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to the description of a person’s appearance or behavior - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) is the use of a word in different meanings.

Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry different semantic loads and serve to create sound game.

Types of homonyms:

homographs - words are written the same way, change their meaning depending on the emphasis placed (lock - lock);
Homophones - words differ in one or more letters when written, but are perceived equally by ear (fruit - raft);
Homoforms are words that sound the same, but at the same time refer to different parts speeches (I'm flying on an airplane - I'm curing a runny nose).

Puns are used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning; they convey sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their polysemy.

Synonyms - describe the same concept from different sides, have different semantic load and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms it is impossible to construct a bright and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.

Types of synonyms:

complete - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
semantic (meaningful) - designed to give color to words (conversation);
stylistic - have same value, but at the same time they relate to different styles of speech (finger-finger);
semantic-stylistic - have a different connotation of meaning, relate to different styles of speech (make - bungle);
contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.

Antonyms are words that have opposite lexical meanings and refer to the same part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.

Tropes are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, and vividly recreate the picture.

Defining Tropes

	Definition
Allegory	Allegorical words and expressions that convey the essence and main features of a particular image. Often used in fables.
Hyperbola	Artistic exaggeration. Allows you to vividly describe properties, events, signs.
Grotesque	The technique is used to satirically describe the vices of society.
Irony	Tropes that are designed to hide the true meaning of an expression through slight ridicule.
Litotes	The opposite of hyperbole is that the properties and qualities of an object are deliberately understated.
Personification	A technique in which inanimate objects are attributed the qualities of living beings.
Oxymoron	Connection of incompatible concepts in one sentence (dead souls).
Periphrase	Description of the item. A person, an event without an exact name.
Synecdoche	Description of the whole through the part. The image of a person is recreated by describing clothes and appearance.
Comparison	The difference from metaphor is that there is both what is being compared and what is being compared with. In comparison there are often conjunctions - as if.
Epithet	The most common figurative definition. Adjectives are not always used for epithets.

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative meaning. There is always no subject of comparison, but there is something with which it is compared. There are short and extended metaphors. Metaphor is aimed at external comparison of objects or phenomena.

Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects based on internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.

Syntactic means of expression

Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and works of art.

Types of stylistic figures

Name of syntactic structure	Description
Anaphora	Using the same syntactic constructions at the beginning of adjacent sentences. Allows you to logically highlight a part of the text or a sentence.
Epiphora	Using the same words and expressions at the end of adjacent sentences. Such figures of speech add emotionality to the text and allow you to clearly convey intonation.
Parallelism	Constructing adjacent sentences in the same form. Often used to enhance a rhetorical exclamation or question.
Ellipsis	Deliberate exclusion of an implied member of a sentence. Makes speech more lively.
Gradation	Each subsequent word in a sentence reinforces the meaning of the previous one.
Inversion	The arrangement of words in a sentence is not in direct order. This technique allows you to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Give the phrase a new meaning.
Default	Deliberate understatement in the text. Designed to awaken deep feelings and thoughts in the reader.
Rhetorical appeal	An emphatic reference to a person or inanimate objects.
A rhetorical question	A question that does not imply an answer, its task is to attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Rhetorical exclamation	Special figures of speech to convey expression and tension of speech. They make the text emotional. Attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Multi-Union	Repeated repetition of the same conjunctions to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Asyndeton	Intentional omission of conjunctions. This technique gives the speech dynamism.
Antithesis	A sharp contrast of images and concepts. The technique is used to create contrast; it expresses the author’s attitude towards the event being described.

Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, and phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such phrases are indispensable in public speeches, election campaigns, rallies, and presentations. In scientific publications and official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases are more important than emotions.

An integral part of any literary work are They are capable of making the text unique and individually authored. In literary criticism, such devices are called tropes. You can learn more about what trails are by reading this article.

Fiction could not exist without various figures of speech, which give works a special style. Any author, be it a poet or a prose writer, constantly uses tropes that help convey his own thoughts and emotions that he wants to express in his creation. Exactly big amount tropes differ from other types of author's texts. So, let's talk in more detail about the means of speech expressiveness themselves: what they are, what types exist, which of them are most often used, what their functions and features are.

Let's find out what trails are. Tropes are those that make the text more expressive and lexically diverse. There are many types of these means: metaphor, metonymy, personification, hyperbole, synecdoche, parcellation, litotes, epithet, comparison and others. Let's discuss these paths in more detail. There really are a lot of them in the Russian language, so some scientists tried to identify several of these means of expression from which all the others originated. Thus, after a series of studies, it was found that the “main” tropes are metaphor and metonymy. However, there is no unified classification of means of speech expression, since scientists have not been able to determine a single trope from which all the others were derived.

Let us explain the meaning of the tropes listed above.

A metaphor is a hidden comparison, a figure of speech that helps to compare several objects with each other without the help of words “like”, “the same as”, “similar to something” and so on.

Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another according to the principle of “contiguity”.

Personification is the attribution of human qualities to inanimate objects.

Hyperbole is an exaggeration of any properties of an object.

Epithets are special tropes. In literature they occupy a very important place, as they characterize the characteristics of an object: size, color. If we're talking about about something animate, then this trope can clarify character and appearance.

Parcellation is one of the ways to place emphasis on the desired part of a sentence by separating it from the main sentence.

Now you have an idea of what trails are and what they are like. This knowledge can be useful to you not only for analysis but also for creating your own original texts. Keeping in mind the expressive function of tropes, you can easily diversify the vocabulary of your work with fancy phrases that will make it individual and unique.

So, knowing what tropes are, you can create your own literary masterpieces that will turn out to be as unusual and individual as possible!

Speech. Analysis of means of expression.

It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (visual and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.

Lexical means.

Typically, in a review of assignment B8, an example of a lexical device is given in parentheses, either as one word or as a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.

synonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words close in meaning	soon - soon - one of these days - not today or tomorrow, in the near future
antonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words with opposite meanings	they never said you to each other, but always you.
phraseological units– stable combinations of words that are close in lexical meaning to one word	at the end of the world (= “far”), tooth does not touch tooth (= “frozen”)
archaisms- outdated words	squad, province, eyes
dialectism– vocabulary common in a certain territory	smoke, chatter
bookstore, colloquial vocabulary	daring, companion; corrosion, management; waste money, outback

Paths.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in parentheses, like a phrase.

Types of tropes and examples for them are in the table:

metaphor– transfer of word meaning by similarity	dead silence
personification- likening any object or phenomenon to a living being	dissuadedgolden grove
comparison– comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through conjunctions as if, as if, comparative degree of adjective)	bright as the sun
metonymy– replacing a direct name with another by contiguity (i.e. based on real connections)	The hiss of foamy glasses (instead of: foaming wine in glasses)
synecdoche– using the name of a part instead of the whole and vice versa	a lonely sail turns white (instead of: boat, ship)
paraphrase– replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition	author of “Woe from Wit” (instead of A.S. Griboyedov)
epithet– the use of definitions that give the expression figurativeness and emotionality	Where are you going, proud horse?
allegory– expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images	scales – justice, cross – faith, heart – love
hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of the described	at one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed
litotes- understatement of the size, strength, beauty of the described	your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble
irony- the use of a word or expression in a sense contrary to its literal meaning, for the purpose of ridicule	Where are you, smart one, wandering from, head?

Figures of speech, sentence structure.

In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

epiphora– repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following each other	I'd like to know. Why do I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor?
gradation– construction of homogeneous members of a sentence with increasing meaning or vice versa	I came, I saw, I conquered
anaphora– repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following each other	Irontruth - alive to envy, Ironpestle, and iron ovary.
pun– pun	It was raining and there were two students.
rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) – exclamatory, interrogative sentences or sentences with appeals that do not require a response from the addressee	Why are you standing there, swaying, thin rowan tree? Long live the sun, may the darkness disappear!
syntactic parallelism– identical construction of sentences	young people are welcome everywhere, We honor old people everywhere
multi-union– repetition of redundant conjunction	And the sling and the arrow and the crafty dagger The years are kind to the winner...
asyndeton– construction of complex sentences or a series of homogeneous members without conjunctions	The booths and women flash past, Boys, benches, lanterns...
ellipsis- omission of an implied word	I'm getting a candle - a candle in the stove
inversion– indirect word order	Our people are amazing.
antithesis– opposition (often expressed through conjunctions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms	Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin
oxymoron– a combination of two contradictory concepts	living corpse, ice fire
citation– transmission of other people’s thoughts and statements in the text, indicating the author of these words.	As it is said in the poem by N. Nekrasov: “You have to bow your head below a thin epic…”
questionably-response form presentation– the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them	And again a metaphor: “Live under minute houses...”. What does this mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction
ranks homogeneous members of the sentence– listing homogeneous concepts	A long, serious illness and retirement from sports awaited him.
parcellation- a sentence that is divided into intonational and semantic speech units.	I saw the sun. Over your head.

Remember!

Analysis of the task.

(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, destroying forests, and spoiling the World Ocean. (5) If on a small spaceship the astronauts begin to fussily cut wires, unscrew screws, and drill holes in the casing, then this will have to be classified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) The only question is size and time.

(13) Unfortunately, such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land, are just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of so-called technological progress. (14) On the one hand, a person, delayed by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, overcrowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this external world itself has been brought into such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual communication with him.

(15) It is unknown how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?

(According to V. Soloukhin)

List of terms:

epithet
litotes
introductory words and plug-in constructions
irony
extended metaphor
parcellation
question-and-answer form of presentation
dialectism
homogeneous members of the sentence

It is better to start completing the task with gaps that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission No. 2. Since a whole sentence is presented as an example, some kind of syntactic device is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste” series of homogeneous sentence members are used : Verbs scurrying around, multiplying, doing business, participles eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that a plural word should take the place of the omission. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and inserted constructions and homogeneous clauses. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without loss of meaning are absent. Thus, in place of gap No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.

In place of the last gap, it is necessary to substitute a masculine term, since the adjective “used” must be consistent with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms – epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet.

Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.

Practice.

(25) I don’t know how much time passed, but suddenly the night was illuminated by bright headlights, and the long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and saw my father through my eyelashes. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.

(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time afterwards he suffered from double pneumonia.

(According to N. Aksyonova)

Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.

In stylistics and rhetoric, artistic tropes are elements of speech figurativeness. Paths (Greek tropos - phrase) are special figures of speech that give it clarity, liveliness, emotionality and beauty. Tropes imply a conversion of a word, a revolution in its semantics. They arise when words are used not in a literal, but in a figurative sense; when, through comparison by contiguity, expressemes enrich each other with a spectrum of lexical meanings.

For example, in one of the poems by A.K. We read Tolstoy:

A birch tree was wounded by a sharp axe,

Tears rolled down the silver bark;

Don't cry, poor birch, don't complain!

The wound is not fatal, it will heal by summer...

The above lines actually recreate the story of one spring birch tree that received mechanical damage to the tree bark. The tree, according to the poet, was preparing to awaken from a long winter hibernation. But a certain evil (or simply absent-minded) man appeared, wanted to drink birch sap, made an incision (notch), quenched his thirst and left. And juice continues to flow from the cut.

The specific texture of the plot is acutely experienced by A.K. Tolstoy. He has compassion for the birch and regards its history as a violation of the laws of existence, as a violation of beauty, as a kind of world drama.

Therefore, the artist resorts to verbal and lexical substitutions. The poet calls the cut (or notch) in the bark a “wound.” And birch sap is “tears” (a birch tree, of course, cannot have them). The trails help the author identify the birch and the person; express in a poem the idea of mercy, compassion for all living things.

In poetics, artistic tropes retain the meaning that they have in stylistics and rhetoric. Tropes are poetic turns of language that imply a transfer of meaning.

The following types of artistic tropes are distinguished: metonymy, synecdoche, allegory, comparison, metaphor, personification, epithet.

Metonymy is the simplest type of allegory, which involves replacing a name with its lexical synonym (“axe” instead of “axe”). Or a semantic result (for example, the “golden” age of Russian literature” instead of: “Russian literature of the 19th century”). Metonymy (transference) is the basis of any trope. Metonymic, according to M. R. Lvov, are “connections by contiguity.”

Synecdoche is a metonymy in which a name is replaced by a name that is narrower or broader in semantics (for example, “nosy” instead of “man” (with a big nose) or “bipeds” instead of “people”). The replaced name is identified by its characteristic feature, which names the replacement name.

An allegory is a figurative allegory intended for rational decoding (for example, the Wolf and the Hunter in I. A. Krylov’s famous fable “The Wolf in the Kennel” are easily deciphered by the images of Napoleon and Kutuzov). The image in the allegory plays a subordinate role. He sensually embodies some significant idea; serves as an unambiguous illustration, a “hieroglyph” of an abstract concept.

Comparison is a metonymy that is revealed in two components: the compared and the comparing. And grammatically it is formed with the help of conjunctions: “as”, “as if”, “as if”, etc.

For example, S.A. Yesenina: “And the birches (comparing component) stand like (union) large candles (comparing component).”

Comparison helps you see a subject from a new, unexpected point of view. It highlights hidden or hitherto unnoticed features in him; gives it a new semantic existence. Thus, comparison with candles “gives” Yesenin’s birches the harmony, softness, warmth, and blinding beauty characteristic of all candles. Moreover, thanks to this comparison, trees are understood to be alive, even standing before God (since candles, as a rule, burn in the temple).

Metaphor, according to the fair definition of A.A. Potebny, there is an “abbreviated comparison”. It detects only one - the comparing component. Comparable - conjectured by the reader. The metaphor is used by A.K. Tolstoy in the line about the wounded and weeping birch tree. The poet apparently provides only a substitute word (comparative component) - “tears”. And the replaced (compared component) - “birch sap” - is conjectured by us.

Metaphor is a hidden analogy. This trope genetically grows out of comparison, but has neither its structure nor grammatical design (conjunctions “as”, “as if”, etc. are not used).

Personification is the personification (“revival”) of inanimate nature. Thanks to personification, earth, clay and stones acquire anthropomorphic (human) features and organicity.

Quite often, nature is likened to a mysterious living organism in the works of the Russian poet S.A. Yesenina. He says:

Where the cabbage beds are

The sunrise pours red water,

Maple baby for the little uterus

The green udder sucks.

An epithet is not a simple, but a metaphorical definition. It arises by combining dissimilar concepts (approximately according to the following scheme: bark + silver = “silver bark”). The epithet opens the limits of the traditional characteristics of an object and adds new properties to them (for example, the epithet “silver” gives the following new characteristics to the object corresponding to it (“bark”): “light”, “shiny”, “pure”, “with black”) .

The most important role in artistic speech is played by tropes - words and expressions used not in a literal, but in a figurative meaning. Tropes create so-called allegorical imagery in a work, when an image arises from the rapprochement of one object or phenomenon with another.

At the same time, the artistic effect of the trope, as a rule, is stronger, the farther the phenomena being brought together are separated from each other: such, for example, is Tyutchev’s likening of lightning to “deaf-mute demons.”

Using this trope as an example, one can trace another function of allegorical imagery: to reveal the essence of a particular phenomenon, usually hidden, the potential poetic meaning contained in it. So, in our example, Tyutchev, with the help of a rather complex and non-obvious trope, forces the reader to take a closer look at such an ordinary phenomenon as lightning, to see it from an unexpected side. For all its complexity, the trope is very accurate: indeed, it is natural to describe the reflections of lightning without thunder with the epithet “deaf and mute.”

Only the tropes of the second group are capable of creating poetic imagery; the first group - general linguistic tropes - for obvious reasons should not be taken into account in the analysis. The fact is that common language tropes, due to frequent and widespread use, seem to be “erased”, lose their figurative expressiveness, are perceived as a cliche and, because of this, are functionally identical to vocabulary without any figurative meaning.

Thus, in Pushkin’s line “From the surrounding mountains the snow has already fled in muddy streams” contains a common linguistic trope - the personification of “escaped”, but when reading the text we don’t even think about it, and the author did not set such a task for himself, using something that has already lost its expressive meaning design. True, it should be noted that sometimes a common language, worn-out trope can be “refreshed” by rethinking, introducing additional meanings, etc.

Thus, the common linguistic metaphor “rain - tears” is no longer impressive, but here’s how Mayakovsky rethinks this image: “Tears from the eyes, from the drooping eyes of drainpipes.” By introducing new poetic meanings (houses are personified, and drainpipes are associated with eyes), the image acquires new pictorial and expressive power.

like a sick person out of bed,

the nerve jumped.

First I walked

barely,

then he ran in

excited,

Now he and the new two

They rush about with desperate tap dancing.

The plaster on the lower floor collapsed.

small,

are jumping madly,

The nerves make your legs give way!

The metaphorical elephant cannot have any ivory, it is simply a designation, a sign of something very large as opposed to something very small - a fly. Mayakovsky gives the elephant concreteness, thereby making the image unexpected, arresting attention and producing a poetic impression.

In the analysis of a specific work, it is important not only and not so much to analyze this or that trope (although this can be useful so that students understand the mechanism of action of an artistic micro-image), but to evaluate how allegorical imagery is characteristic of a given work or a given writer, to what extent it is important in the overall image system, in the formation of the artistic style.

Thus, Lermontov or Mayakovsky are characterized by frequent and regular use of tropes, while Pushkin and Tvardovsky, for example, are characterized by a rare and sparing use of allegorical imagery; there the figurative system is built using other means.

There are quite a large number of varieties of tropes; Since you can read about them in educational and reference publications, we will simply list the most important ones here without definitions or examples. So, the tropes include: comparison, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, allegory, symbol, irony (not to be confused with the typological variety of pathos!), oxymoron (or oxymoron), periphrasis, etc.

Esin A.B. Principles and techniques of analyzing a literary work. - M., 1998

Paths and figures

4. Personification is a trope with the help of which inanimate objects, natural phenomena, and abstract concepts appear either in human form (anthropomorphism) or in the form of another living creature. Personification is closely related to mythological consciousness, which is based on the animation and deification of all living things. It is not surprising that personification is one of the most frequent tropes in folklore: wind-father; mother river etc.

Personification can be expressed:

Metaphorical definition ( the dozing bell woke up the fields);

Nouns ( silent old man);

Metaphorical verb and its forms ( and the dark forest, bending, dozes);

Personifying comparisons ( and the sun, like a cat, pulls the ball towards itself).

5 . Metonymy(with gr. renaming) - this trope is based on transfer by contiguity, that is, objects or phenomena are connected by a causal or other connection. In essence, metonymy is a condensed description of an object. There are a huge number of connections between the phenomena that form metonymic expressions. Let's highlight only the main ones:

Between content and containing: the whole samovar is drunk;

Between an action and the instrument of that action: their villages and fields for the violent raid / He condemned them to swords and fires;

Between an object and the material from which it is made: porcelain and bronze on the table;

Between a place and the people who are in it: And restless Petersburg / Already awakened by the drum;

Between a sign and its bearer: gluttonous youth flies.

6. Synecdoche- a trope, which is a type of metonymy. With synecdoche, transference is based on quantitative relations. Even M.V. Lomonosov in his “Brief Guide to Eloquence” identified seven main types of synecdoche. This classification, with minor amendments, is also found in modern reference dictionaries:

1. replacing the specific concept with a generic one: Well, sit down, darling!

2. replacing the generic concept with a specific one: Most of all, take care and save a penny

3. using the name of a part instead of the name of the whole: I just need a roof over my head

4. using the name of the whole instead of the name of the part: he was buried in the globe

5. use of units instead of plural: Swede, Russian, stabs, chops, cuts

6. use of plural instead of singular: We all look at Napoleons

7. definite quantity instead of indefinite: there are suddenly thousands lying around

7. Hyperbole– a trope based on excessive exaggeration, intensification of a feature. Basically, such features as size, weight, color, quantity, intensity of processes, etc. are subject to exaggeration: the blood boiled in his veins like melted metal.

The history of hyperbole is quite long: being widespread in folklore works (epics, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings), it is also frequent in modern literature.

The functions of a hyperbola are diverse. In various eras, it could express solemn delight, convey strong, vivid feelings of heroes, and be used as a characterological means when creating an image, especially a comic one.

8. Meiosis is the reverse trope of hyperbole. It is based on deliberate understatement: The stroller is light as a feather. Particularly interesting are the cases when the authors connect hyperbole and meiosis:

Adishche city windows were broken

On the tiny ones, sucking with lightshellish .

Some researchers confuse the concepts of meiosis and litotes, since translated from Greek. the latter means simplicity, smallness, moderation. However, more often the term "litotes" is used in the case of "negation of the opposite" or "negation of the inverse property": Believe me: I listened not without sympathy.

9. Oxymoron(oxymoron) - a trope (or, in the minds of some researchers, a stylistic figure) consisting of a combination of two words that contradict each other in meaning and are connected by attributive relations. With an oxymoron, the lexical meaning is always played out:

a living corpse, a skinny hero, self-confident and embarrassed.

10. Periphrase(s)- a trope consisting in replacing a word or expression with a descriptive phrase in which more are called essential features denoted by:

Farewell, free element (sea); singer of Gyaur and Juan

Periphrase(s) has several varieties:

a) antonomasia or antonomasia (from Greek renaming), including the following cases

Replacing a proper name with a descriptive phrase is indirect naming ( land of the rising sun; author of The Master and Margarita);

Using a proper name, usually a well-known one, instead of a common noun, to name another person with similar characteristics: Russian Sappho (about young Akhmatova), Russian Rubens (about Kustodiev);

Usage geographical name associated with any events, to indicate similar events: Third Rome (about Moscow);

Using instead of a proper name to name a person, phenomenon, place, the name of its main property, characteristic: and here the white one (about death) marks the houses with crosses

b) dysphemism or cacofemism - the deliberate use of rude, vulgar, stylistically reduced, sometimes obscene words with the aim of expressing a sharply negative assessment or creating other stylistic effects: Why am I lighter than all the idiots, but also darker than all the crap?

c) euphemism - replacing a harsh taboo word or expression with a softer, ethically and aesthetically acceptable: only a woman who came here to sell / her beauty

11. Irony – a trope in which a word or statement takes on a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite or negates its literal meaning. In stylistics, to denote this phenomenon, there is also the term antiphrasis - the use of a word, as well as a phrase or sentence in a meaning opposite to the usual one, which is achieved using context or a certain intonation: how lovely! Deceive a person and then pretend to be an angel.

TRAILS– words used in a figurative meaning. They draw objects and actions vividly and clearly and give us the opportunity to see them as the author saw them when creating the work. With their help, the author conveys his attitude towards the depicted.

№

Definition of trope

Role in the text

Examples

EPITHET is a figurative definition, which is usually expressed by an adjective (“cruel storm”) in a figurative meaning, but can also be an adverb (“to love passionately”).

They enhance the expressiveness, imagery, and brightness of the language. They highlight a characteristic feature or quality of an object, phenomenon, and create a vivid idea of the object; evaluate an object or phenomenon; cause a certain emotional attitude towards them; help to see the author’s attitude to what is depicted; reveal internal state hero.

And beyond the river timidly shine gold lights. Half an hour later they heard impatient calls. Leave the operating room wearily just smile and say... And Timofey walked next to him and carried a bag of bread and carrots and scary was proud of himself. Little Timofey felt sorry for himself for a long time, lying on a pile of fallen leaves and looking into distant indifference sky.

COMPARISON - comparison of objects based on a common feature. Usually the comparison is expressed comparative turnover with unions as, exactly, as if, as if. Can also be expressed in the form instrumental case of nouns. Can be added with words similar, similar.

Comparisons, like epithets, play the same roles in the text: enhancing its figurativeness and imagery, creating more vivid, expressive images; highlighting, emphasizing any significant features of the depicted objects, their characteristics, qualities, actions; expression of the author's assessments and emotions.

The dog sighed deeply and loudly, As a person. The white birch tree under my window is covered with snow, definitely silver. Under blue skiesmagnificent carpets, glistening in the sun, the snow lies Snake drifting snow rushes across the ground. They look like the eyes of a cautious cat your eyes.

PERSONIFICATION - endowing inanimate objects with actions characteristic of a person.

Personifications serve to create bright, expressive and imaginative pictures of something, enhancing conveyed thoughts and feelings;

to express the author's characteristics of objects. The earth sleeps in a blue glow. They said about the teacher Ksenia Andreevna that she had hands sing. wild pock with my grateful and quiet soul heard, lured and fed

birds. METAPHOR – transfer of properties from one object to another based on their similarity. The basis of a metaphor is a comparison, but it is not formalized using comparative conjunctions, which is why the metaphor is called hidden comparison . Therefore, a metaphor can often be converted into a simile using words

like, like, similar.

Through the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases, the author of the text enhances the visibility and clarity of what is depicted. Metaphors serve as an important means of expressing the author's assessments and emotions, the author's characteristics of objects and phenomena. Crimson Pyre sunset All with his dog blossomed with my soul Biter, and it changed her beyond recognition. And now went blind and deaf not only she, but also her soul. See eyes,

which

stopped out of fear and anticipation.

PERIPHRASE (PERIPHRASE) - replacing the name of an object with some descriptive phrase. Paraphrases allow you to: highlight and emphasize the most significant features of the depicted object; express the author’s assessment of what is depicted more clearly and fully; avoid unnecessary repetition. Paraphrases (especially extended ones) make it possible to give the text a solemn, sublime, pathetic sound. So I sat in the clearing, rested and looked forest king(i.e. deer) Conquerors of mountain peaks(climbers) City of White Nights(St. Petersburg)

Black gold

(oil) IRONY - hidden mockery. A type of allegory when mockery is hidden behind an outwardly positive assessment. Assessing what is ridiculed. ridicule

negative qualities smart, are you delusional, head?) (addressing a donkey). Men's suits for sale. What colors? Huge selection colors! Black, black-gray, gray-black, blackish-gray...

HYPERBOLE - excessive exaggeration of the properties of the depicted object

The use of hyperbole and litotes allows the authors of texts to sharply enhance the expressiveness of what is depicted, to give vivid thoughts emotional coloring, convey the author's assessment.

They probably called a hundred times. Vitka found the saffron milk caps again, it’s not for nothing that he has eyes on the tea saucer. Purr - her whole life.

LITOTE - excessive understatement of the properties of the depicted object.

Little guy from the nails. We – fewer forest ants.

Syntactic means (figures of speech)

Figures of speech - These are special syntactic constructions.

Antithesis reveals the contrast between phenomena or objects. Forms the antithesis of a pair (or several) antonyms, linguistic or contextual. When everything is calm, you make noise; when everyone is worried, you are calm;. . . if you need to be silent, you shout; when you should speak - you are silent.

Gradatsi I am a rhetorical figure, the essence of which is to arrange the listed elements (words, phrases, phrases) in increasing order of their meaning (“ascending gradation”) or in descending order of meaning (“descending gradation”). A full life of Russian classics in school is a condition for the existence of our people, our state; This, as they say now, is a matter of national security. Without reading “Onegin”, without knowing “Crime and Punishment”, “Oblomov”, we turn into some other people. What about “people”! They don’t call us anything other than “the population.” . . ” The first sentence is based on an “ascending” gradation. From the second sentence to the end of the passage there is a descending gradation.

Repeat used to enhance the statement, give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm. White-white; asked and asked for help; a little.

Lexical repetition- repetition of the same word or phrase with slight variations. Behind those villages are forests, forests, forests. Winter was waiting, nature was waiting.

Anaphora- a type of repetition: the same word, several words, are repeated at the beginning of several phrases following one after another. Anaphora gives rhythm to speech.

Epiphora– repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel row. I would like to know why I am a titular councilor? Why titular adviser?

Syntactic parallelism- repetition of syntactic constructions, a special arrangement of phrases following one another with the same syntactic structure, with the same type of word order, and the same type of predicates. In the previous example, anaphora is inseparable from syntactic parallelism. I miss my grandfather's house with its big green yard. . . I miss the spacious kitchen in my grandfather's house with its dirt floor. . . I miss the evening roll call of women from hill to hill...

Period- this is a way of syntactic design complex sentence, which combines anaphora and syntactic parallelism. When I think about the fate of Russian literature, when I remember that feat of arms which she accomplished, when I understand that she lives in the soul of every person at any time - then I agree with Maxim Gorky: yes, literature is our national pride!

Rhetorical exclamation marks the emotional semantic culmination of a segment (part) of speech. Serves the task of establishing active interaction with the addressee. O times! O morals!

A rhetorical question serves to emotionally highlight the semantic centers of the text, to form an emotional and evaluative attitude of the addressee to the subject of speech. What is culture, why is it needed? What is culture as a value system? What is the purpose of that liberal arts education, which has always been in our tradition?

Allegory - allegory, in art - a detailed simile, the details of which form a system of allusions; Moreover, the direct meaning of the image is not lost, but is supplemented by the possibility of its figurative interpretation. In fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the image foxes, greed - in the guise wolf, deceit - in the form snakes.

Parcellation- such a division of a sentence in which the content of the utterance is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic meanings speech units, following one after another after a separating pause. Flerov can do everything. And uncle Grisha Dunaev. And the doctor too.

Ellipsis- omission of an element of an utterance that is easily restored in a given context or situation. There are curious people in all the windows, and boys on the roofs. We sat in ashes, hail in dust, swords in sickles and plows.

Default- a turn of phrase that consists in the fact that the author does not fully express the thought, leaving the reader to decide what exactly remains unspoken. But listen: if I owe you... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus.

Grotesque- depiction of reality in an exaggerated, ugly-comic form, intertwining the real with the fantastic, the scary with the funny.

Pathos- (feeling, passion) - passionate inspiration, upliftment.

Tropes: finding and analyzing tropes. What are tropes and why are they used in literary works Lexical means of the Russian language

Defining Tropes

Syntactic means of expression

Types of stylistic figures

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