Romanov
Years of life: April 17 (29), 1818, Moscow - March 1 (13), 1881, St. Petersburg
Emperor of All Russia, Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke Finnish 1855-1881

From the Romanov dynasty.

He was awarded a special epithet in Russian historiography - Liberator.

He is the eldest son imperial couple Nicholas I and Alexandra Feodorovna, daughters of the Prussian king Frederick William III.

Biography of Alexander Nikolaevich Romanov

His father, Nikolai Pavlovich, was a Grand Duke at the time of his son’s birth, and in 1825 became Emperor. From an early age, his father began to prepare him for the throne, and considered “reigning” to be his duty. The mother of the great reformer, Alexandra Feodorovna, was a German who converted to Orthodoxy.

He received an education corresponding to his origin. His main mentor was the Russian poet Vasily Zhukovsky. He managed to raise the future king as an enlightened man, a reformer, and not lacking in artistic taste.

According to numerous testimonies, in his youth he was very impressionable and amorous. During a trip to London in 1839, he fell in love with the young Queen Victoria, who later became for him the most hated ruler in Europe.

In 1834, a 16-year-old boy became a senator. And in 1835 a member
Holy Synod.

In 1836, the heir to the throne received military rank Major General.

In 1837 he went on his first trip to Russia. I visited about 30 provinces and reached Western Siberia. And in a letter to his father he wrote that he was ready to “strive for the work for which God destined me.”

The years 1838–1839 were marked by travels around Europe.

On April 28, 1841, he married Princess Maximiliana Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt, who received the name Maria Alexandrovna in Orthodoxy.

In 1841 he became a member State Council.

In 1842, the heir to the throne entered the Cabinet of Ministers.

In 1844 he received the rank of full general. For some time he even commanded the guards infantry.

In 1849, he received military educational institutions and the Secret Committees for Peasant Affairs under his jurisdiction.

In 1853 at the beginning Crimean War commanded all the troops of the city.

Emperor Alexander 2

March 3 (February 19), 1855 became emperor. Having accepted the throne, he accepted the problems his father had left behind. In Russia at that time, the peasant question was not resolved, the Crimean War was in full swing, in which Russia suffered constant setbacks. The new ruler had to carry out forced reforms.

March 30, 1856 Emperor Alexander II concluded the Peace of Paris, thereby ending the Crimean War. However, the conditions for Russia turned out to be unfavorable, it became vulnerable from the sea, it was forbidden to have naval forces in the Black Sea.

In August 1856, on the day of coronation, the new emperor declared an amnesty for the Decembrists, and also suspended recruitment for 3 years.

Reforms of Alexander 2

In 1857, the Tsar intends to free the peasants, “without waiting for them to free themselves.” He established a Secret Committee to deal with this issue. The result was the Manifesto for the Liberation of the Peasantry from Serfdom and the Regulations on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom, published on March 3 (February 19), 1861, according to which peasants received personal freedom and the right to freely dispose of their property.

Among other reforms carried out by the tsar was the reorganization of educational and legal systems, the virtual abolition of censorship, the abolition of corporal punishment, and the creation of zemstvos. With him the following were carried out:

• Zemstvo reform on January 1, 1864, according to which issues of local economy, primary education, medical and veterinary services were entrusted to elected institutions - district and provincial zemstvo councils.
• The city reform of 1870 replaced the previously existing class-based city administrations with city councils elected on the basis of property qualifications.
• The judicial charter of 1864 introduced unified system judicial institutions, based on the formal equality of all social groups before the law.

In the course of military reforms, a systematic reorganization of the army was begun, new military districts were created, a relatively harmonious system of local military command was created, the reform of the military ministry itself was ensured, and operational control of troops and their mobilization was carried out. By the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. the entire Russian army was armed with the latest breech-loading rifles.

During the educational reforms of the 1860s. A network of public schools was created. Together with classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums (schools) were created, in which the main emphasis was on teaching natural sciences and mathematics. The Charter of 1863 issued for the highest educational institutions introduced partial autonomy of universities. In 1869, the first higher women's courses in Russia with a general education program were opened in Moscow.

Imperial policy of Alexander 2

He confidently and successfully pursued traditional imperial policy. Victories in the Caucasian War were won in the first years of his reign. The advance into Central Asia was successfully completed (in 1865-1881, most of Turkestan became part of Russia). After long resistance, he decided to fight a war with Turkey in 1877-1878, which Russia won.

On April 4, 1866, the first attempt on the life of the emperor took place. The nobleman Dmitry Karakozov shot at him, but missed.

In 1866, 47-year-old Emperor Alexander II entered into an extramarital affair with a 17-year-old maid of honor, Princess Ekaterina Mikhailovna Dolgoruka. Their relationship lasted for many years, until the death of the emperor.

In 1867, the tsar, trying to improve relations with France, held negotiations with Napoleon III.

On May 25, 1867, the second attempt occurred. In Paris, Pole Anton Berezovsky shoots at the carriage where the Tsar, his children and Napoleon III were. One of the French guard officers saved the rulers.

In 1867, Alaska (Russian America) and the Aleutian Islands were sold to the United States for $7.2 million in gold. The feasibility of acquiring Alaska by the United States of America became obvious 30 years later, when gold was discovered in the Klondike and the famous “gold rush” began. Declaration Soviet government from 1917 it was announced that it did not recognize the agreements concluded by Tsarist Russia, so Alaska should belong to Russia. The sale agreement was carried out with violations, so there are still disputes about the ownership of Alaska by Russia.

In 1872, Alexander joined the Union of Three Emperors (Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary).

Years of reign of Alexander 2

During the years of his reign, a revolutionary movement developed in Russia. Students unite in various unions and circles, often sharply radical, and for some reason they saw the guarantee of the liberation of Russia only on the condition of the physical destruction of the Tsar.

On August 26, 1879, the executive committee of the People's Will movement decided to assassinate the Russian Tsar. This was followed by 2 more assassination attempts: on November 19, 1879, the imperial train was blown up near Moscow, but again the emperor was saved by chance. On February 5, 1880, an explosion occurred in the Winter Palace.

In July 1880, after the death of his first wife, he secretly married Dolgoruka in the church of Tsarskoye Selo. The marriage was morganatic, that is, unequal in gender. Neither Catherine nor her children received any class privileges or rights of succession from the emperor. They were granted the title of Most Serene Princes of Yuryevsky.

On March 1, 1881, the emperor was mortally wounded as a result of another assassination attempt by Narodnaya Volya member I.I. Grinevitsky, who threw a bomb, and died the same day from blood loss.

Alexander II Nikolaevich went down in history as a reformer and liberator.

Was married twice:
First marriage (1841) with Maria Alexandrovna (07/1/1824 - 05/22/1880), nee Princess Maximiliana-Wilhelmina-Augusta-Sophia-Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt.

Children from first marriage:
Alexandra (1842-1849)
Nicholas (1843-1865), raised as heir to the throne, died of pneumonia in Nice
Alexander III(1845-1894) - Emperor of Russia in 1881-1894.
Vladimir (1847-1909)
Alexey (1850-1908)
Maria (1853-1920), Grand Duchess, Duchess of Great Britain and Germany
Sergei (1857-1905)
Pavel (1860-1919)
The second, morganatic, marriage to his long-time (since 1866) mistress, Princess Ekaterina Mikhailovna Dolgorukova (1847-1922), who received the title of Most Serene Princess Yuryevskaya.
Children from this marriage:
Georgy Alexandrovich Yuryevsky (1872-1913), married to Countess von Tsarnekau
Olga Alexandrovna Yuryevskaya (1873-1925), married to Georg-Nikolai von Merenberg (1871-1948), son of Natalia Pushkina.
Boris Alexandrovich (1876-1876), posthumously legitimized with the surname “Yuryevsky”
Ekaterina Alexandrovna Yuryevskaya (1878-1959), married to Prince Alexander Vladimirovich Baryatinsky, and then to Prince Sergei Platonovich Obolensky-Neledinsky-Meletsky.

Many monuments have been opened to him. In Moscow in 2005 at an open The inscription on the monument reads: “Emperor Alexander II. Abolished in 1861 serfdom and freed millions of peasants from centuries of slavery. Conducted military and judicial reforms. He introduced a system of local self-government, city councils and zemstvo councils. Ended the many years of the Caucasian War. Liberated the Slavic peoples from the Ottoman yoke. Died on March 1 (13), 1881 as a result of a terrorist attack.” A monument was also erected in St. Petersburg made of gray-green jasper. In the capital of Finland, Helsinki, a monument to Alexander II was erected in 1894 for strengthening the foundations of Finnish culture and recognizing the Finnish language as the state language.

In Bulgaria he is known as the Tsar Liberator. The grateful Bulgarian people for the liberation of Bulgaria erected many monuments to him and named streets and institutions throughout the country in his honor. And in modern times in Bulgaria during the liturgy in Orthodox churches Alexander II and all Russian soldiers who died on the battlefield for the liberation of Bulgaria in Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878

1. First quarter of the 19th century. Accession to the throne and achievements of Alexander I.

2. The reign of Nicholas I.

3. Reforms of Alexander II and Alexander III.

4. Second half of the 19th century. Political life of the country.

1. Introduction

3. Second quarter of the 19th century

4. Reforms of Alexander II

5. Counter-reforms of Alexander III

6. Social movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

7. Conclusion

1. Introduction

The 19th century in the history of Russia began new and last palace coup. Emperor Paul I was killed and his son Alexander I (1801-1825) ascended the throne.

In the Manifesto published on March 12, Alexander I announced that he would rule “according to the laws and according to the heart of our grandmother, Empress Catherine the Great.” He began by restoring the letters of grant to the nobility and cities, which had been canceled by Paul, restoring the noble elected bodies, freeing the nobles from corporal punishment, returning those dismissed from the army and those who had been disgraced, returning up to 12 thousand repressed officials and military men from exile, destroying the Secret Expedition and restoring alliance with England. He also canceled other Pavlovian decrees, such as the ban on wearing round French hats, subscribing to foreign books and magazines, and traveling abroad.

The reign of Alexander I was filled with events and liberal expectations. The most contradictory testimonies from contemporaries remain about Alexander I himself and his views. He expressed directly contradictory views and took the same actions.

The years of the reign of Emperor Nicholas I (1825-1855) are rightly regarded as the “apogee of autocracy.” Nicholas's reign began with the massacre of the Decembrists and ended in the days of the defense of Sevastopol. The replacement of the heir to the throne by Alexander I came as a surprise to Nicholas I, who was not prepared to rule Russia. He was interested exclusively in military affairs, especially their external side - parades, maneuvers, drills. The political course of Nicholas I was a reaction to the growth of the revolutionary movement, both in Western Europe and in Russia. “The revolution is on the threshold of Russia, but, I swear, it will not penetrate it as long as the breath of life remains in me,” this is the “creed” formulated by Nicholas I. However, he could not ignore the lessons of December 14, not think about the reasons that gave rise to Decembrism . That is why he was involved in all the details of the investigation into the Decembrist case. From the materials of this case, a broad picture of colossal outrages in management, court, finance, etc. was revealed to Nicholas I. He understood the need to carry out, if not reforms, then a series of measures that, without changing the entire system, would prevent the possibility of a new revolutionary upheaval.

2. Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century

In the first quarter of the 19th century. Russia was at the crossroads between the autocratic serfdom system and the search for new forms of organization of socio-economic and political life. This controversial and difficult period of Russian history is associated with the reign of Alexander I (1777-1825). Emperor Alexander I, who ascended the throne after the assassination of Paul I in 1801, inherited the complex internal and external state of the country.

By the beginning of the 19th century. Russia was one of the largest states in Europe. The main branch of the economy was agriculture, developing extensively. 95% of the population lived in the village and was engaged in agricultural work. The land continued to remain the monopoly property of landowners and the state. For the use of a plot of land, serfs bore duties - corvée and quitrent. In the central industrial regions of the country, the process of peasant labor to work in manufactories has become widespread. Some landowners, in order to obtain greater marketable products, sought to use hired labor, new technical means and grow industrial crops on their farms.

Industrial development, despite the general increase in the number of enterprises, was low. Peasant handicrafts were important. The number of enterprises that used primarily hired labor increased. By 1825 already more than half the number of workers in capitalist industry were civilian employees. The merchants expanded their rights. All this contributed to the development of capitalist relations, but the pace of development of industry and Agriculture were low.

Alexander I understood that the economic and socio-political systems of Russia needed serious modernization. During the first months of his reign, he took a number of measures in domestic political life: the Secret Expedition was destroyed, the use of torture in legal proceedings and corporal punishment against nobles and merchants was prohibited, free travel abroad was allowed, the import of books, the opening of private printing houses, many prisoners were released from the Peter and Paul Fortress.

Satisfying the needs of the nobility, oriented towards the European market, the government in 1802 allowed duty-free trade through the port of Odessa. At the same time, a regulation was approved on duty-free import of machinery and mechanisms for Russian industry and agriculture. In 1801, a decree was adopted according to which all persons of free standing (merchants, state peasants) were given the right to buy land. This decree for the first time began to destroy the monopoly of the nobility on land. In 1803, a decree on free cultivators followed, according to which the nobles, at their discretion, could release serfs for a significant ransom. But under Alexander I, only 47 thousand serf souls were released.

A plan for liberal reforms in the country was drawn up, in the development of which he played a major role Secret committee as part of P.A. Stroganov (1772-1817), V.P. Kochubey (1768-1834), N.N. Novosiltsev (1768-1834), A. Czartoryski (1700-1861). First attempts at perestroika government controlled and social relations suffered from incompleteness, and the international situation and Russia’s participation in coalitions against France in 1805 and 1806-1807. forced Alexander I to temporarily withdraw from internal political problems.

3. Second quarter of the 19th century

Domestic policy: 14 Dec. 1825 Nicholas I, the younger brother of Alexander I, ascends the throne; his activity begins with the trial of the Decembrists. There were lengthy court cases, and as a result, they were sentenced to death penalty 5 participants, 127 people were sent to remote regions or sent to hard labor. The reign of Nicholas is a direct continuation of the last decade of the reign of Alexander I. Nicholas set himself a goal: not to change anything, to maintain the existing order, without the participation of society, with the help of practical legislation. Conservative and bureaucratic way of acting. Bureaucracy: Nicholas complicated the mechanism of centralized management - the creation of a huge number of new departments, offices, etc. Growth of the bureaucratic apparatus (from 15 thousand to 85 by the end of the reign). Creation own office His Majesty. For guidance and consideration of the most important government issues. Division I - ministerial reports, control over the execution of orders; II department - Codification of laws under the leadership of M. Speransky; Division III - police investigation system (Benckendorf), censorship body; IV department - management of charitable and educational institutions (Empress Maria); V compartment - for management state peasants; Section VI - to stabilize the situation in the Caucasus. Codification of laws - to create a set of existing laws, was carried out by the 2nd department of the chancellery, headed by Speransky. 1830 “Complete collection of laws” is published Russian Empire” from all charters, laws, decrees, starting with the Code of 1649 (in 45 volumes). For this work, Speransky was awarded the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called. The complete collection was used as the basis for the Code of Laws, which was published in 15 volumes in 1833. Peasant question: Nicholas signs a manifesto (to stop the rumors that appeared after the uprising of 1825), from which it is clear that there will be no changes in the structure of the serfs. However, this thought greatly bothered the king. About 10 secret committees were created to consider the issue of liberating the peasants, the result of the activity was the creation of a special department for state peasants - the Ministry of State Property headed by Kiselev (the best administrator of that time). In a short time, Kiselev created excellent management of state peasants and raised their well-being. They have ceased to be a burden for the state. Kiselev created the structure of rural and urban societies, which will form the basis of the regulations of February 19. For released peasants. With the support of Kiselev, a number of laws were passed on the organization of serfs: 1827. - the law limiting the noble rights of “soul ownership”, the essence is this: if the estate was a debtor to the state (these then were 2/3 of all estates); 1841 - with the support of Kiselev, a law prohibiting the sale of peasants at retail; 1843 - a ban on the purchase and sale of peasants without land; 1847 - gave the right to peasants of debtor estates to buy their freedom with the land... 1848 - The law gave peasants the right to purchase real estate. Results: no laws received practical development, with some exceptions. Thanks to the bureaucratic apparatus, the laws simply disappeared from subsequent editions of the Code of Laws.

Currency reform. 1839 - 43 Kankrin is carrying out reform. The main idea is to limit government spending; reduce loans and borrowings; protectionism. Introduced the silver ruble (1 new was equal to 17 old).

Official ideology, education. An important direction of Nikolaev's rule was control over the minds of his subjects. This task was taken up by the Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov. The founder and author of a new state ideology - “The Theory of Official Nationality”. Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality: - are three features - the main guidelines spiritual development Russia and the differences in the development of Russia from the Western world. 1828 - reform of lower and secondary educational institutions - division of educational institutions according to class: primary and parish schools - for peasants; district schools - for city residents; gymnasiums - for nobles. 1835 new university charter - restriction of university autonomy. 1826, 1828 - censorship regulations - strict control over literature. Foreign policy. Main military event The era of Nicholas's reign is the Crimean War. With Turkey. War years: 1853-56. Great shame for Russia. It showed a disorganized, ruined, hungry country. The war showed the real situation in which Russia was: Russia's economic backwardness; remnants political structure countries - serfdom, which hinders the development of the Russian economy; backwardness from the West in weapons and military equipment, etc. The defeat in the Crimean War greatly influenced Nicholas. He could not survive such a blow: the war showed the inconsistency of his policy. While traveling around Russia he dies.

Few monarchs in history have been honored with the epithet “liberator.” Alexander Nikolaevich Romanov deserved such an honor. Alexander II is also called the Tsar-Reformer, because he managed to change dead center many old problems of the state that threatened riots and uprisings.

Childhood and youth

The future emperor was born in April 1818 in Moscow. The boy was born on a holiday, Bright Wednesday, in the Kremlin, in the Bishop's House of the Chudov Monastery. Here, on that festive morning, the entire Imperial family gathered to celebrate Easter. In honor of the boy’s birth, the silence of Moscow was broken by a 201-volley cannon salute.

Archbishop of Moscow Augustine baptized the baby Alexander Romanov on May 5 in the church of the Chudov Monastery. His parents were Grand Dukes at the time of their son's birth. But when the grown-up heir turned 7 years old, his mother Alexandra Feodorovna and father became the imperial couple.

The future Emperor Alexander II received an excellent education at home. His main mentor, responsible not only for training, but also for education, was. Archpriest Gerasim Pavsky himself taught sacred history and the Law of God. Academician Collins taught the boy the intricacies of arithmetic, and Karl Merder taught the basics of military affairs.

Alexander Nikolaevich had no less famous teachers in legislation, statistics, finance and foreign policy. The boy grew up very smart and quickly mastered the sciences taught. But at the same time, in his youth, like many of his peers, he was amorous and romantic. For example, during a trip to London, he fell in love with a young British girl.

Interestingly, after a couple of decades, it turned into the most hated European ruler for the Russian Emperor Alexander II.

The reign and reforms of Alexander II

When Alexander Nikolaevich Romanov reached adulthood, his father introduced him to the main state institutions. In 1834, the Tsarevich entered the Senate, the following year - into the Holy Synod, and in 1841 and 1842 Romanov became a member of the State Council and the Committee of Ministers.

In the mid-1830s, the heir made a long familiarization trip around the country and visited 29 provinces. In the late 30s he visited Europe. He also completed his military service very successfully and in 1844 became a general. He was entrusted with the guards infantry.

The Tsarevich leads military educational institutions and chaired the Secret Committees on Peasant Affairs in 1846 and 1848. He delves quite well into the problems of the peasants and understands that changes and reforms are long overdue.

The outbreak of the Crimean War of 1853-56 becomes a serious test for the future sovereign on his maturity and courage. After martial law was declared in the St. Petersburg province, Alexander Nikolaevich assumed command of all the troops of the capital.

Alexander II, having ascended the throne in 1855, received a difficult legacy. During his 30 years of rule, his father failed to resolve any of the many pressing and long-standing issues of the state. In addition, the country's difficult situation was aggravated by the defeat in the Crimean War. The treasury was empty.

It was necessary to act decisively and quickly. The foreign policy of Alexander II was to use diplomacy to break through the tight ring of blockade that had closed around Russia. The first step was the conclusion of the Paris Peace in the spring of 1856. The conditions accepted by Russia cannot be called very favorable, but the weakened state could not dictate its will. The main thing is that they managed to stop England, which wanted to continue the war until the complete defeat and dismemberment of Russia.

That same spring, Alexander II visited Berlin and met with King Frederick William IV. Frederick was the emperor's maternal uncle. They managed to conclude a secret “dual alliance” with him. The foreign policy blockade of Russia was over.

The domestic policy of Alexander II turned out to be no less successful. The long-awaited “thaw” has arrived in the life of the country. At the end of the summer of 1856, on the occasion of the coronation, the tsar granted amnesty to the Decembrists, Petrashevites, and participants in the Polish uprising. He also suspended recruitment for another 3 years and liquidated military settlements.

The time has come to resolve the peasant issue. Emperor Alexander II decided to abolish serfdom, this ugly relic that stood in the way of progress. The sovereign chose the “Baltsee option” of landless emancipation of peasants. In 1858, the Tsar agreed to a reform program developed by liberals and public figures. According to the reform, peasants received the right to purchase the land allocated to them as their own.

The great reforms of Alexander II turned out to be truly revolutionary at that time. He supported the Zemstvo Regulations of 1864 and the City Regulations of 1870. The Judicial Statutes of 1864 were put into effect and the military reforms of the 1860s and 70s were adopted. Reforms took place in public education. Corporal punishment, which was shameful for a developing country, was finally abolished.

Alexander II confidently continued the traditional line of imperial policy. In the first years of his reign, he won victories in the Caucasian War. Successfully advanced in Central Asia, annexing most of Turkestan to the territory of the state. In 1877-78, the tsar decided to go to war with Turkey. He also managed to fill the treasury, increasing the total income of 1867 by 3%. This was done by selling Alaska to the United States.

But in last years During the reign of Alexander II, the reforms “stalled.” Their continuation was sluggish and inconsistent. The emperor dismissed all the main reformers. At the end of his reign, the Tsar introduced limited public representation in Russia under the State Council.

Some historians believe that the reign of Alexander II, for all its advantages, had a huge disadvantage: the tsar pursued a “Germanophile policy” that did not meet the interests of the state. The monarch was in awe of the Prussian king - his uncle, and in every possible way contributed to the creation of a united militaristic Germany.

A contemporary of the tsar, chairman of the Committee of Ministers Pyotr Valuev, wrote in his diaries about the strong nervous disorder sovereign in the last years of his life. Romanov was on the verge nervous breakdown, looked tired and irritated. “Crown half-ruin” - such an unflattering epithet given by Valuev to the emperor, accurately explained his condition.

“In an era where strength is needed,” the politician wrote, “obviously, one cannot count on it.”

Nevertheless, in the first years of his reign, Alexander II managed to do a lot for the Russian state. And he really deserved the epithets “Liberator” and “Reformer”.

Personal life

The emperor was a passionate man. He has many novels to his credit. In his youth, he had an affair with his maid of honor Borodzina, whom his parents urgently married off. Then another novel, and again with the maid of honor Maria Trubetskoy. And the connection with the maid of honor Olga Kalinovskaya turned out to be so strong that the Tsarevich even decided to abdicate the throne for the sake of marrying her. But his parents insisted on breaking off this relationship and marrying Maximilianna of Hesse.

However, the marriage with, nee Princess Maximiliana-Wilhelmina-Augusta-Sophia-Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt, was a happy one. 8 children were born there, 6 of whom were sons.

Emperor Alexander II mortgaged the favorite summer residence of the last Russian tsars, Livadia, for his wife, who was sick with tuberculosis, by purchasing the land along with the estate and vineyards from the daughters of Count Lev Pototsky.

Maria Alexandrovna died in May 1880. She left a note containing words of gratitude to her husband for a happy life together.

But the monarch was not a faithful husband. The personal life of Alexander II was a constant source of gossip at court. Some favorites gave birth to illegitimate children from the sovereign.

An 18-year-old maid of honor managed to firmly capture the heart of the emperor. The Emperor married old lover the same year that his wife died. It was a morganatic marriage, that is, concluded with a person of non-royal origin. The children from this union, and there were four of them, could not become heirs to the throne. It is noteworthy that all the children were born at a time when Alexander II was still married to his first wife.

After the tsar married Dolgorukaya, the children received legal status and a princely title.

Death

During his reign, Alexander II was assassinated several times. The first assassination attempt occurred after the suppression of the Polish uprising in 1866. It was committed in Russia by Dmitry Karakozov. The second is next year. This time in Paris. Polish emigrant Anton Berezovsky tried to kill the Tsar.

A new attempt was made at the beginning of April 1879 in St. Petersburg. In August of the same year, the executive committee of Narodnaya Volya sentenced Alexander II to death. After this, the Narodnaya Volya members intended to blow up the emperor’s train, but mistakenly blew up another train.

The new attempt turned out to be even bloodier: several people died in the Winter Palace after the explosion. As luck would have it, the emperor entered the room later.

To protect the sovereign, the Supreme Administrative Commission was created. But she did not save Romanov’s life. In March 1881, a bomb was thrown at the feet of Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya member Ignatius Grinevitsky. The king died from his wounds.

It is noteworthy that the assassination attempt took place on the day when the emperor decided to launch a truly revolutionary constitutional project M. T. Loris-Melikov, after which Russia had to follow the path of the constitution.

Emperor Alexander II the Liberator - period of reign from 1855 to 1881 was born April 29, 1818 in Moscow. Under his rule, serfdom was abolished and a number of reforms were carried out that strengthened the Russian Empire.

Brief plan:

Reign of Alexander II

Being a direct heir, Alexander from an early age prepared for the role of a state ruler. He received an excellent education without leaving the royal chambers. Among his teachers were such well-known names as Speransky, Zhukovsky, Kankrin and others.

The coronation of Alexander II took place on August 26 (September 7), 1856 in Moscow. Along with the rights to the throne, he also inherited the unresolved problems of the Crimean War, as well as society dissatisfied with the Decembrist exile of 1825.

Wars

During the reign of Alexander II, Russia achieved great success in the military field. And this despite the fact that government activity Emperor's reign began with the rapid conclusion of the Crimean War, as a result of which the country found itself in political isolation. France, Austria and Prussia created an anti-Russian coalition after the defeat of Russia. The rapprochement with Prussia occurred in 1864, when an uprising broke out in Poland, which was suppressed with the help of Russian troops.

In 1864, the victory of Russia ended almost 50 years Caucasian War. As a result, the lands of the North Caucasus were annexed to the Russian Empire and its influence in these regions strengthened. There was also a massive migration of people from the central part of Russia to the Caucasus.

Reforms of Alexander II

Historians of pre-revolutionary Russia called the reign of Alexander 2 nothing less than the “era of great reforms.” It's about not only about the breakthrough decision for the country to abolish serfdom - the emperor also became famous for his successes in foreign policy.

Peasant reform. Abolition of serfdom.

When studying the biography of Alexander II, one cannot help but mention his historical nickname “Liberator”. The Russian Emperor received it after signing the manifesto “On the Abolition of Serfdom” on March 3, 1861. Despite the fact that preparations for this step had been carried out over previous decades (during the reign of Alexander 1 in the 1820s), the final decision was made by Alexander 2.

The reform of 1861 is controversial. On the one hand, Alexander 2 removed the shackles of serfdom from the state, and on the other, he brought it to a social and economic crisis. The table shows the positive and negative sides Peasant reform.

Generally peasant reform, although it had been in preparation for more than twenty years, did not bring the expected reassurance to the public.

Liberal reforms

1. Zemstvo reform 1864 became a direct continuation of peasant reforms. Its essence was to create a system of local self-government for the liberated peasants. Zemstvo assemblies were organized, the members of which included landowners, peasants, officials and the clergy. The local taxation system developed.
2. Urban reform 1870 was a necessity due to the emergence of capitalism and the expansion of cities. Within its framework, the City Duma was formed, where the mayor, the executive body of public administration, was elected. Only property owners who were able to pay taxes were granted voting rights. Hired workers, doctors, engineers, teachers, and officials without their own housing were deprived of the right to vote.
3. Military reforms The 60-70s improved the living conditions of the military. Alexander 2 signed decrees on the abolition of corporal punishment, the reorganization of the military training system, and the transformation of the military administration system. Military courts were created, copying the activities of city courts. On January 1, 1874, a decree on universal conscription was issued, which replaced conscription. Benefits were also added: only sons and the only breadwinners in the family were exempt from service. In general, there was a modernization of the army.
4. Educational reforms laid the foundation for the development of women's education. The development of public education continued.

The significance of the reforms turned out to be very tangible. Russia has entered a new path of development. This affected all spheres of life in the country.

Judicial reform

The judicial reform of 1864 outlined completely new directions for the development of legal proceedings and the judicial system. The bourgeois system had a huge influence on the formation of the new judicial system.

The main changes in this area were:

• Independence of the court from the administration;
• Publicity;
• Adversarial nature of the court (presence of prosecution and defense, provision of independent facts from both sides, and making a decision taking into account all factors);
• Creation of a jury trial;
• The principle of irremovability of judges (The position held by a judge is, as a rule, for life. A judge cannot be removed or transferred to another locality against his will).

Emperor's mother

The mother of Alexander II, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, was the wife of the Russian ruler Nicholas 1. She suited her stern and military-obsessed husband perfectly. With her cheerful and cheerful disposition, the young empress smoothed out all the barbs of Nicholas’s character and balanced the alliance. She was received very warmly at court, appreciating her stateliness and belonging to an illustrious family. Despite health problems caused by numerous psychological shocks, Alexandra Fedorovna, following the results of her reign, was remembered by everyone as a graceful and invariably cheerful woman.

Children of Alexander II

The emperor's first wife, Maria Alexandrovna, gave Alexander two eight heirs. Ekaterina Dolgorukova, who became the emperor’s second wife, after the wedding had the opportunity to legitimize the relationship of her four children with Alexander.

Wife of Alexander II

Alexander II’s personal life was in full swing; he was a flighty man when it came to women. Starting from adolescence, he fell in love with young ladies-in-waiting. At the age of 22, he married Princess Maximilian of Hesse, who in Orthodoxy became Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna.

This marriage, which lasted 40 years, was reliable and happy. But it was not without intrigue. Alexander's wife was strongly supported and protected by her father, Nicholas, while the emperor's mother opposed the marriage, hinting at Mary's ignoble origins. And Alexander Nikolaevich himself spoke negatively about his wife’s friends, as well as her “stuffy” character.

Second wife

After the death of his wife, the emperor tied the knot with his closest favorite, Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukova.

How Alexander II was killed

Attempts were made on the life of Alexander II 7 times. “Successful” turned out to be perfect March 13, 1881. On that day, the emperor was traveling from the Horse Guards Manege to the Winter Palace along the Neva. The carriage was blown up twice. Alexander was not injured from the first explosion: he managed to get out of the cart and went to the wounded. The second bomb hit its target - the emperor’s legs were blown off and he died from his injuries several hours later. On the site where Alexander 2 was killed in St. Petersburg, the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood has now been erected.

On March 3, 1855, Alexander II Nikolaevich ascended the throne. In his first speech to the members of the Council, the new emperor said: “My unforgettable Parent loved Russia and all his life he constantly thought about its benefits alone. In his constant and daily labors with me, he told me that I want to take for myself everything that is unpleasant and everything that is difficult, just to hand over to you a Russia that is well-ordered, happy and calm. Providence judged otherwise, and the late Emperor, in the last hours of his life, told me I hand over my command to you, but, unfortunately, not in the order he wished, leaving you with a lot of work and worries.”

The first important step was the end of the bloody Crimean War of 1853-1856. Alexander II concluded the Treaty of Paris in March 1856. When external enemies stopped tormenting Russia, the emperor set about restoring the country and he began with reforms.

Great Reforms of Alexander II.

Abolition of military settlements in 1857.

IN early XIX century, during the era of the wars with Napoleon, a proposal arose to organize military settlements on a large scale in the internal provinces. This idea was put forward by Emperor Alexander I. He hoped that military settlements would replace reserve armies in Russia and would make it possible, if necessary, to increase the number of troops several times. Such settlements gave lower ranks to be able to remain among their families during their service and continue their agricultural pursuits, and to provide themselves with a home and food in their old age.

But the military settlements did not last long, bringing only losses to the treasury. After Emperor Alexander II ascended the throne, aide-de-camp Dmitry Stolypin was sent to military settlements. Having toured all the settlements, Stolypin reported to the emperor that the population of the districts was greatly impoverished, many owners had no livestock, gardening had fallen into disrepair, buildings in the districts required repairs, and in order to provide food for the troops, such an amount of land was needed that the villagers were left with only inconvenient areas. Both the local and the main authorities of military settlements came to the conclusion that military settlements were unprofitable in material terms and did not achieve their goal. In view of this, in 1857, military settlements and districts of arable soldiers were abolished and transferred to the management of the Ministry of State Property.

Abolition of serfdom in 1861.

The first steps towards the limitation and further abolition of serfdom were taken by Paul I in 1797 with the signing of the Manifesto on the three-day corvee, followed by Alexander I in 1803 with the signing of the Decree on free cultivators, and also by Nicholas I, who continued the peasant policy of Alexander I.

The new government assembled by Alexander II decided not only to continue this policy, but also to completely resolve the peasant issue. And already on March 3, 1861, in St. Petersburg, Alexander II signed the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom, which consisted of 17 legislative acts.

• Peasants ceased to be considered serfs and began to be considered temporarily indebted. Peasants received full civil legal capacity in everything that did not relate to their special class rights and responsibilities - membership in rural society and ownership of allotment land.
• Peasant houses, buildings, and all movable property of peasants were recognized as their personal property.
• The peasants received elected self-government, the lowest economic unit of self-government was the rural society, the highest administrative unit- parish.
• The landowners retained ownership of all the lands that belonged to them, but were obliged to provide the peasants with a house plot and field allotment for use. Field allotment lands were not provided to peasants personally, but for the collective use of rural societies, which could distribute them among peasant farms at their own discretion. The minimum size of a peasant plot for each locality was established by law.
• For the use of allotment land, peasants had to serve corvee or pay quitrent and did not have the right to refuse it for 49 years.
• The size of the field allotment and duties had to be recorded in charters, which were drawn up by landowners for each estate and verified by peace intermediaries.
• Rural societies were given the right to buy out the estate and, by agreement with the landowner, the field allotment, after which all obligations of the peasants to the landowner ceased. The peasants who bought the plot were called peasant owners. Peasants could also refuse the right of redemption and receive from the landowner an allotment free of charge in the amount of a quarter of the allotment that they had the right to redeem. When a free allotment was allocated, the temporarily obligated state also ceased.
• The state, on preferential terms, provided landowners with financial guarantees for receiving redemption payments, taking over their payment. The peasants, accordingly, had to pay redemption payments to the state.

Many historians consider the reform of Alexander II incomplete and argue that it did not lead to the liberation of the peasants, but only determined the mechanism for such liberation, and an unfair one. From the speech of the “populist” I.N. Myshkina: “The peasants saw that they were given sand and swamps and some scattered pieces of land on which it was impossible to farm, when they saw that this was done with the permission of the state authorities, when they saw that there was no that mysterious article of the law that they assumed as protecting the interests of the people, they became convinced that they had nothing to rely on state power, that they could only count on themselves.”

"The Liberation of the Peasants (Reading the Manifesto)." ⁠Boris Kustodiev.1907

Financial Reform.

The abolition of serfdom created a new type of economy in Russia. The reforms began on May 22, 1862 with the introduction of the “Rules on the preparation, consideration and execution of state lists and financial estimates of ministries and main departments.” The first step was the introduction of the principle of transparency in finance and the beginning of publication of the state budget. In 1864-68, treasuries were organized within the structure of the Ministry of Finance, administering all state revenues. In 1865, local financial self-government bodies - control chambers - were created.

With the beginning of reforms, trade also changed. In order to eradicate corruption, the government decided to replace the previously used tax payments with excise stamps on alcohol and tobacco. Wine farming, the income from which traditionally formed the lion's share of the budget, was abolished. From now on, excise taxes could be obtained from special excise departments. The monetary reform of 1862 was delayed because the state did not have enough gold and silver to exchange paper money. It was implemented only in 1895-97. under the leadership of Sergei Witte.

Modernization radically reorganized the state financial system, making it more open and more efficient. Strict accounting of the state budget put the economy on a new path of development, corruption decreased, the treasury was spent on important items and events, and officials became more responsible for managing money. Thanks to new system the state was able to overcome the crisis and mitigate Negative consequences peasant reform.

University Reform.

In 1863, the University Charter was adopted. The new charter gave universities more independence in their affairs internal management and expanded the possibilities of taking into account local conditions for its development, created more favorable conditions for scientific and educational activities, increased the attractiveness of teaching work at universities for young people and contributed to the establishment in the future of a sufficient number of qualified teachers in university departments, and also provided for a number of special measures to encourage students to master the sciences. The trustee of the educational district was responsible only for overseeing the legality of the actions of the University Council. Students studying at the university did not have the right to a corporate structure, and outsiders were not allowed to attend lectures at all.

Military Reform.

In 1860-1870, Military reform was carried out. The main provisions of the reforms were developed by Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. The results of the reform were:

• reduction in army size by 40%;
• the creation of a network of military and cadet schools, which accepted representatives of all classes;
• improvement of the military command and control system, introduction of military districts, creation of the General Staff;
• the creation of public and adversarial military courts and a military prosecutor's office;
• abolition of corporal punishment (with the exception of canings for those specially “fined”) in the army;
• rearmament of the army and navy (adoption of rifled steel guns, new rifles, etc.), reconstruction of state-owned military factories;
• the introduction of universal conscription in 1874 instead of conscription and a reduction in terms of service. According to the new law, all young people who have reached the age of 20 are conscripted, but the government determines the required number of recruits every year, and by lot takes only this number from the conscripts, although usually no more than 20-25% of conscripts were called up for service. The only son of his parents, the only breadwinner in the family, and also if the conscript's older brother is serving or has served in service were not subject to conscription. Those recruited for service are listed in it: in ground forces 15 years - 6 years in service and 9 years in reserve, in the navy - 7 years of active service and 3 years in reserve. For those who received elementary education the period of active service is reduced to 4 years, those who graduated from a city school - to 3 years, a gymnasium - to one and a half years, and those who had higher education- up to six months.
• development and introduction of new military laws in the troops.

Urban reform was carried out. It served as an impetus for the commercial and industrial development of cities and consolidated the system of urban public administration bodies. One of the results of the reforms of Alexander II was the inclusion of society in civil life. The foundation was laid for a new Russian political culture.

As well as the Judicial Reform, which comprehensively reformed the judicial system and legal proceedings, and the Zemstvo Reform, which provided for the creation of a system of local self-government in rural areas - zemstvo institutions.

Foreign policy.

During the reign of Alexander II, the Russian Empire expanded. During this period, Central Asia was annexed to Russia (in 1865-1881, most of Turkestan became part of Russia), North Caucasus, Far East, Bessarabia, Batumi. Thanks to Prince Alexander Gorchakov, Russia restored its rights in the Black Sea, having achieved the lifting of the ban on keeping its fleet there. The meaning of annexing new territories, especially Central Asia, was unclear to some Russian society. Saltykov-Shchedrin criticized the behavior of generals and officials who used the Central Asian war for personal enrichment, and M. N. Pokrovsky pointed out the meaninglessness of the conquest of Central Asia for Russia. These conquests resulted in great human losses and material costs.

In 1867, Russian America (Alaska) was sold to the United States for $7.2 million. In 1875, an agreement was concluded in St. Petersburg, according to which all the Kuril Islands were transferred to Japan in exchange for Sakhalin. Both Alaska and the Kuril Islands were remote overseas possessions, unprofitable from an economic point of view. Moreover, they were difficult to defend. The concession for twenty years ensured the neutrality of the United States and the Empire of Japan in relation to Russian actions in Far East and made it possible to free up the necessary forces to secure more habitable territories.

In 1858, Russia concluded the Aigun Treaty with China, and in 1860 - the Beijing Treaty, under which it received vast territories of Transbaikalia, Khabarovsk Territory, a significant part of Manchuria, including Primorye (Ussuri Territory).

Assassinations and Death of Alexander II.

Several attempts were made on Alexander II's life. On April 16, 1866, the Russian revolutionary Karakozov made his first assassination attempt. When Alexander II was heading from the gates of the Summer Garden to his carriage, a shot was heard. The bullet flew over the emperor's head, and the shooter was pushed by the peasant Osip Komissarov standing nearby, who saved the emperor's life.

On May 25, 1867, an assassination attempt was made by the Polish emigrant Anton Berezovsky in Paris. The bullet hit the horse. April 14, 1879 in St. Petersburg. The Russian revolutionary Solovyov fired 5 shots from a revolver.

On December 1, 1879, there was an attempt to blow up an imperial train near Moscow. The emperor was saved by the fact that a steam locomotive, which was running half an hour earlier than the tsar’s, broke down in Kharkov. The king did not want to wait for the broken locomotive to be repaired and the royal train went first. Not knowing about this circumstance, the terrorists missed the first train, detonating a mine under the fourth carriage of the second.

On February 17, 1880, Khalturin carried out an explosion on the first floor of the Winter Palace. The emperor was having lunch on the third floor; he was saved by the fact that he arrived later than the appointed time; 11 guards on the second floor died.

On March 13, 1881, a fatal assassination attempt occurred. The Tsar's cortege turned from Inzhenernaya Street onto the embankment, heading towards the Theater Bridge, Rysakov threw a bomb under the horses of the Emperor's carriage. The explosion injured the guards and some people nearby, but the emperor himself was not injured. The person who threw the projectile was detained.

Life coachman Sergeev, captain Kulebyakin and Colonel Dvorzhitsky urged the emperor to leave the scene of the assassination attempt as soon as possible, but Alexander felt that military dignity required him to look at the wounded Circassians who were guarding him and say a few words to them. Afterwards, he approached the detained Rysakov and asked him about something, then went back to the place of the explosion, and then Grinevitsky, standing at the canal grate and unnoticed by the guards, threw a bomb wrapped in a napkin at the emperor’s feet.

The blast wave threw Alexander II to the ground, blood gushing from his crushed legs. The fallen emperor whispered: “Carry me to the palace... there... to die...” By order of Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich, who had arrived from the Mikhailovsky Palace, the bleeding emperor was taken to the Winter Palace.

The Emperor was carried in his arms and laid on the bed. Life physician Botkin, when asked by the heir how long the emperor would live, answered: “From 10 to 15 minutes.” At 15:35, the imperial standard was lowered from the flagpole of the Winter Palace, notifying the population of St. Petersburg about the death of Emperor Alexander II.

Emperor Alexander II on his deathbed. Photo by S. Levitsky.