5. Are there races? From the eighteenth century to the mid-twentieth, all anthropologists, biologists and sociologists recognized that the human race was composed of a number of biologically distinguishable races. So, in the 1920s. British anthropologist Sir Arthur Keith wrote: “Human types

We are all different: we differ from each other in eye color, hair color, skin tone, height, body weight, facial features. These are all individual differences. But there are signs that distinguish entire communities of people - races. Race is a historically established group of people united by a common origin, territory of residence, common morphological and physiological hereditary characteristics, as well as traditions and customs.

The question of the origin and classification of races has long history. The first attempt to describe human races was made in the 17th century. Frenchman Bernier. Later, C. Linnaeus identified four races: American, European, Asian and African.

Currently, most scientists distinguish three large races and several dozen small ones. The major races are Equatorial (Australian-Negroid), Eurasian (Caucasoid) and Asian-American (Mongoloid).

Representatives of the equatorial race live mainly in the tropical regions of the Old World. They are characterized by dark skin, wavy or curly hair, a wide flattened nose with large nostrils, and thick lips.

The area of ​​distribution of the Eurasian race is Europe, part of Asia, North Africa, America. Its representatives are characterized by light, sometimes dark skin, straight, sometimes wavy soft hair, a long nose, thin lips, and usually well-developed facial hair (mustache, beard).

The Asian-American race is common in America, Central and East Asia. Representatives of this race have straight, black, coarse hair, and their mustache and beard grow weakly. The skin is more dark than light. The Mongols have a nose of medium width and protrudes slightly, while the American Indians have a long, strongly protruding nose. The most characteristic features of this race are a wide face, prominent cheekbones, a narrow palpebral fissure, medium-thick lips, and a fold of skin at the inner corner of the eye formed by the skin of the upper eyelid (epicanthus).

However, even within the same race there are groups of people who differ from each other. For example, a Malay is not very similar in appearance to a Buryat or an Evenk. The Negroid pygmies from the banks of the Congo River differ from the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert. Caucasians of Northern Europe (Norwegians, Swedes) - light-eyed, fair-haired, light-skinned - bear little resemblance to southerners, most of whom are brown-eyed and dark-skinned. Therefore, scientists identify several dozen smaller races - second and third order.

Currently, people are actively moving around the world, moving from place to place. For example, Caucasians live on all continents. Representatives of different races marry. Scientists believe that in Russia currently 45 million people belong to the transitional Caucasian-Mongolian type.

Races arose a long time ago. The first division into two large trunks, the Mongoloid and Caucasian-Negroid races, apparently occurred 90-92 thousand years ago. It is believed that the separation of Caucasians and Negroids occurred 50 thousand years ago.

Scientists are still arguing about the mechanism of race formation. Many characteristics of races are clearly adaptive in nature. Thus, the dark skin of Negroids protects them better from ultraviolet rays than the light skin of Caucasians. Curly hair serves as a good heat insulator in the sun. However, the definitive role of these traits remains unproven, since representatives of other races are currently living in the same conditions.

An important factor in the formation of races could be their isolation. It is easy to imagine that in some groups of people living isolated from the rest of the world, some new characteristics arose - the shape of the nose, lips, etc. People who were carriers of this trait married only within their group. Their offspring also married within this group. Over time, the new trait became the property of all members of this group.

Despite the differences between races, all modern humanity is represented by one species - Homo sapiens. This is confirmed primarily by the fact that fertile offspring are born to representatives of different races who marry.

For a long time, some scientists (and some still) directly connected biological features representatives of different races with the level of their culture, they tried to compare peoples at different stages of development, people of different social status. These errors formed the basis of the theory of racism. Its supporters argued that there were superior and inferior races, and this justified the dominance of some peoples over others.

Test your knowledge

1. What is race? How many races did C. Linnaeus identify?
2. What races do modern scientists distinguish?
3. What distinguishes representatives of the equatorial race?
4. Where do representatives of the Eurasian race live?
5. Representatives of which race have a well-developed epicanthus?
6. How are representatives of the Eurasian race different?
7. What race are American Indians?
8. Try to describe the mechanism of race formation.
9. How many species are there in humanity?

Think

Prove that all human races belong to the same species - Homo sapiens

Race is a historically established group of people united by a common origin, territory of residence, common morphological and physiological hereditary characteristics, as well as customs and traditions. Currently, there are three large races: Equatorial, Eurasian, and Asian-American. All races constitute one species - Homo sapiens.

81. Energy exchange cannot occur without plastic, since plastic exchange supplies energy
82. What are the similarities between DNA and RNA molecules?
83. At what stage of embryonic development the volume of a multicellular embryo does not exceed the volume of the zygote
84. Explain why more diverse offspring appear during sexual reproduction than during vegetative reproduction.
85 How do heterozygotes differ from homozygotes
86. Establish the sequence in which the process of DNA reduplication occurs.
87. Establish the sequence of subordination of systematic categories in animals, starting with the smallest.
88. Sequence the action driving forces evolution in a plant population, starting with the mutation process
89. Organisms that require the presence of oxygen in their environment for normal life are called
90. What types of fuel - natural gas, coal, nuclear energy contribute to the creation of the greenhouse effect
91. Explain why more diverse offspring appear during sexual reproduction than during vegetative reproduction.
92. How is biological diversity characterized?
93 Explain why people of different races are classified as the same species. Explain your answer.
94. Why is a cell considered a functional unit of living things?
95. It is known that all types of RNA are synthesized on a DNA template. The fragment of the DNA molecule on which the region of the central loop of tRNA is synthesized has the following nucleotide sequence: ATAGCTGAACGGACT. Establish the nucleotide sequence of the tRNA region that is synthesized on this fragment, and the amino acid that this tRNA will carry in the process of protein biosynthesis, if the third triplet corresponds to the anticodon of the tRNA. Explain your answer. To solve the task, use the genetic code table.
96. The method of studying human heredity, which is based on the study of the number of chromosomes and the features of their structure, is called
97 ATP molecules perform a function in the cell
98. Metabolism between the cell and the environment is regulated
99. Source material serves for natural selection
100. In connection with reaching land, the first plants formed
101. During parthenogenesis, the organism develops from
102. How many types of gametes are formed in diheterozygous pea plants during dihybrid crossing (genes do not form a linkage group)
103. When crossing two guinea pigs with black hair (dominant trait), offspring were obtained, of which 25% were individuals with white hair. What are the genotypes of the parents5
104. Mutational variability, in contrast to modification
105. Honey mushrooms that feed on dead organic remains of stumps and fallen trees belong to the group
106. A sign that birds are adapted to flight
107. The human skull is different from the skull of other mammals
108. During mental work, human brain cells intensify
109. The set of external characteristics of individuals is referred to as the species criterion
110. An example of intraspecific struggle for existence
111. Adaptation of organisms to their environment is the result
112. In humans, in connection with upright posture
113. K abiotic factors environments include
114. The reasons for the change from one biogeocenosis to another are
115. Prerequisite sustainable development of the biosphere
116. A molecule serves as a matrix for translation
117. The number of chromosomes during sexual reproduction in each generation would double if the process had not been formed during evolution
118. The number of gene linkage groups in organisms depends on the number
119. A pure line of plants is offspring 120. The energy required for muscle contraction is released when

genetic system.

2. What definition did Charles Darwin give? hereditary variability?

3. Modern name for individual variability (undefined).

4. The ancestor of the dog according to Charles Darwin’s definition.

5. What type artificial selection refers to unconscious selection?

6. The struggle for existence between species.

7. The struggle for habitat between birds of the same species before breeding.

8. What is the name of the struggle between individuals of the same species for food, space, light, moisture?

9. An organ of a cactus that performs a photosynthetic function.

10. An organism that enters summer hibernation as a result of adaptation to conditions environment to preserve their vital functions.

11. What is formed as a result of natural selection?

12. The emergence of certain characteristics in organisms for existence in environmental conditions.

13. What coloration refers to the fitness of organisms that live in open areas and may be accessible to enemies?

14. What type of fitness does the bright, attractive color of organisms belong to?

15. To what type of fitness does the similarity of the shape of a seahorse and a pipefish with algae belong?

16. What type of adaptation includes storing food for the winter and caring for offspring?

17. A criterion showing the similarity of external and internal characteristics of individuals of the same species.

18. A criterion that determines the occupied habitat of each species.

19. Species criterion, showing the non-crossing of individuals of different species.

20. A criterion that determines the difference in the behavior of organisms.

21. Result of microevolution.

between themselves, -

2. a set of characteristic features of the external structure of organisms, by which individuals of one species can be distinguished from individuals of another species, -

Prove that all human races belong to the same species - Homo sapiens.

WORK WITH COMPUTER

Refer to the disk. Study the lesson material and complete the assigned tasks.

http://www.africana.ru/science/news/030525 _metis. htm (Every fifth person is mixed race)

Race is a historically established group of people united by a common origin, territory of residence, common morphological and physiological hereditary characteristics, as well as customs and traditions. Currently, three large races are distinguished: Equatorial, Eurasian, and Asian-American. All races constitute one species - Homo sapiens.

HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY

Man has always sought to know his body. The origins of anatomy go back to distant prehistoric times. Rock paintings indicate that primitive hunters already knew about the location of vital organs and them significance for the body.

Information about the structure of the heart, lungs, kidneys and other organs is contained in the ancient books that have reached us: the Chinese “Neijing” (XI-VII centuries BC BC), Hindu “Ayur-Veda” (IX-111 centuries BC).

Among the first famous history scientists should first of all name the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates(460-377 BC). He formulated the doctrine of four body types and tempo of mind. In his works, he summarized all the scattered information about the structure human body received by his predecessors.

in the countries of the East. However, the Muslim religion, like the Christian religion, forbade dissecting corpses, so anatomy was studied from the books of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen.

Scientist and doctor Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna)(980-1037) wrote the encyclopedic work “The Canon of Medical Science,” which contained a lot of medical information of that time. One of the chapters of this work is devoted to human anatomy. It gives general

Another famous scientist - Greek Aristotle(384-322 BC) gave the name to the main blood vessel - “aorta”, from methyl common features in the structure of humans and animals. Aristotle argued that blood is formed in the liver and from there it flows to the heart - the source of feelings, where it warms up and flows through the veins to all organs of the body.

Ancient Roman doctor Claudius Galen(131-201) was the first to become interested in the functions of organs. Because of the ban on dissecting human corpses that existed at that time, Galen studied human anatomy by dissecting animals - pigs, dogs, sheep, monkeys: he was confident in the similarity of the structure of the bodies of animals and humans. For fourteen centuries his works were the main source of anatomical and medical knowledge.

In the era of early feudalism (V-X centuries), the dominance of the church slowed down the development of natural sciences in European countries. At the same time, these sciences developed rapidly

description of the structure and functions of the human body, information about bones, joints, muscles, tendons, the structure of teeth, skull and nerves is provided.

At the beginning of the 11th millennium, the rapid development of trade, culture, and urban development began, and sciences developed, among them biology and medicine. The first medical schools appeared in Europe. The development of anatomy was facilitated by the discovery in Europe of XII-XIV centuries first universities. IN XIV-XV centuries Universities were given the right, by special order, to dissect one or two human corpses per year for educational purposes.

In 1326 Mondino da Liuzzi(1275-1327) published the first textbook on anatomy.

Special success Anatomy, like other sciences, advanced during the Renaissance. A particularly great contribution to the development of anatomy was made by Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519) and Andreas Vesalius(1514-

The remarkable artist, mathematician, engineer Leonardo da Vinci studied the proportions of the body, was the first to classify muscles, made about 800 accurate drawings of bones, muscles, heart and other organs, and scientifically described them. These drawings were in various private collections for a long time, and only at the end of the 19th century. Leonardo's anatomical work became known. These drawings have not lost their educational significance even today.

A. Vesalius, in his work “On the Structure of the Human Body,” was the first to describe the systematic anatomy of a person (by system - bones, muscles, viscera, etc.), based on his own experience of dissecting corpses. It's no coincidence that's why

A. Vesalius is called the founder of modern systematic anatomy. At that time, anatomy was forbidden, and A. Vesalius was forced to secretly

but, at the risk of life, to obtain corpses, removing them at night from the graves in the cemetery. In his anatomical works, A. Vesalius pointed out the anatomical mistakes of his predecessors, for which he was persecuted by his opponents and ill-wishers. Because of this, leaving the University of Padua, where he taught anatomy and surgery, A. Vesalius took the post of court physician.

Students and followers of A. Vesalius in the 16th-17th centuries. Many important discoveries were made and earlier mistakes were corrected. So, G. Fallopius(1523-1562) in “Anatomical Observations” for the first time carefully described the structure of many bones, muscles, organs of hearing, and vision. B. Eustachius(1510-1574) studied the anatomy of teeth, kidneys, veins, and the organ of hearing, and was engaged in comparative anatomy. I. Fabricius(1537-1619) studied the structure of the esophagus and larynx, described venous valves. The organs they described were named after these researchers: fallopian (uterine) tube, eustachian (auditory) tube, bursa of Fabricius.

In the XVII-XIX centuries. anatomy was enriched with new facts and discoveries. In 1628, the English scientist W. Harvey(1578-1657) in his book “Anatomical Studies on the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals” proved that blood moves in a vicious circle: through the arteries from the heart, through the veins to the heart. His works served to form an independent science about the work of organs - physiology.

Thanks to improvements in the microscope A. van Leeuwenhoek(1632-1723) the opportunity arose to study the microscopic structure of organs and tissues.

In 1661 M. Malpighi(1628-1694), while studying the lungs, discovered al

veoli and capillaries, which are the connecting link between the arteries and veins of the lungs. In 1685 G. Bidloo(1649-1713) proved that nerves consist of a collection of thin nerve fibers. K. M. Baer(1792-1876) discovered the human egg.

In Russia, the first anatomical information can be found already in ancient manuscripts of the 10th-11th centuries. Our first medical schools (academies) were opened in the 17th-17th centuries. In 1658 Epiphany Slavinetsky translated the works of Vesalius into Russian. The first domestic anatomists made a great contribution to the development of the science of the structure of the human body. A. P. Protasov(1724-1796) - author of many Russian anatomical terms, works on the human physique, structure and functions of the stomach. WITH. G. Zybelin(1735-1802) published the book “A Word about the composition of the human body and about ways to protect it from diseases”, in his works

The first textbooks on anatomy in Russia appeared at the beginning of the 19th century: manual P. A. Zagorsky(1764-1846) “Towards a knowledge of the structure of the human body”, “Anatomy Course” E. ABOUT. Mukhina(1766-1850) and

translated M. I. Shein(1712-1762) into Russian a work on Geister’s anatomy.

The creator of a new branch of science - topographic anatomy, which describes the relative position of internal organs relative to each other and in relation to the bones of the skeleton, and the doctrine of the location of the main blood vessels and nerve trunks was N. I. Pirogov(1810-1881).

P. F. Lesgaft(1837-1909) - author of many works on theoretical anatomy, in which he explored the relationship between the functions of organs and their structure.

A major role in the development of anatomy belongs to the professor at Moscow University D. N. Zernov(1843-1917). He studied the individual variability of the furrows and convolutions of the brain, the sensory organs, and published a textbook on human anatomy, which was reprinted 14 times. Kharkov anatomist V. P. Vorobiev(1876-1937) developed new methods for studying the nerves of the heart and stomach, and created the five-volume Atlas of Human Anatomy. Vorobiev invented new method embalming, which was used to preserve the body of V.I. Lenin. A famous anatomist worked in St. Petersburg - Leningrad V. N. Tankov(1872-1954), who studied the circuitous paths of blood flow and the nerves of many organs. He is the author of a famous textbook on human anatomy.

In a small section it is impossible to describe the contribution that scientists have made to the development of knowledge about the structure of the human body.

Of all the sciences that study the human body, we will highlight the most important.

human anatomy(from the Greek “anatome” - opening, dissection) - the science of the structure of the human body.

Human physiology(from the Greek “physis” - nature) - the science of the functions of the human body and its organs.

Hygiene(from the Greek “hygienos” - healthy) - a science that studies the influence natural environment, work and life on the human body in order to develop health protection measures.

Anthropology is the science of the emergence and development of man. The education of human races, their properties and characteristics is studied by its branch - race studies.

Humanity develops within one species, Homo sapiens, but over millennia under the influence of climate, conditions external environment, geographical location terrain separate groups people were endowed with characteristics that began to distinguish them from each other. This is how races were formed. Differences between people lie in different colors of the skin, irises of the eyes, shape of the nose, lips, hair structure, etc.

Basic evidence of the unity of human races

The kinship and unity of human races is based on a number of characteristics:

• Similarity of origin;
• the presence of the same morphological structure of organs and tissues;
• the possibility of crossing between races and the birth of normal offspring;
• identity of the development of mental and physical abilities in the process of evolution.

Also, with the development of medicine and science, a number of studies have been conducted with the genetic material of people of different races. Scientists have found that the genetic nature of all peoples is the same. The only difference is the number that encode features. These characteristics serve as proof of the unity of the human races.

Large and small racial group

Scientists divide the population into racial groups: large and small.

Large group

The large group consists of three races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Equatorial (Negroid).

People who enter Caucasian race(Eurasian, Caucasian) inhabit the European region, South Asian territory, North Africa, it represents 50% of the earth's population. Recognizable features: the skin is light in color (in the northern part) and has a darkish tint in the south, smooth or slightly curled hair is characteristic, soft to the touch, the nose protrudes, the forehead is straight. The male half has thick hair, a mustache, and a beard.

Mongoloid race(Asian, American) represented by the indigenous people of central Asia, Indonesia, America (Indians). Distinctive characteristics: dark skin, fold on the upper eyelid, slanted (the inner corner of the eyeball is located below the outer), narrow eyes, predominantly black or brown. Thickened nostrils, a wide nose, developed cheekbones, a large face, straight, coarse hair are signs of a Mongoloid.

There is a hypothesis about the origin of the Mongoloids, which states that a large Mongoloid group originated in the steppes of central Asia, in desert places where winds, dust storms, and sudden changes in temperature were a constant phenomenon. The habitat determined the external characteristics of the Mongoloids: narrow, squinted eyes, epicanthus - the fold of the upper eyelid (protective mechanisms).

Equatorial race(African, Australian) lives near the equator, on the islands of the Pacific Ocean. The equatorial group is characterized by: dark skin color (protection from the scorching sun), curly, kinky hair with a coarse structure, full lips, a flat and wide nose (allows you to regulate temperature in a hot climate). The hairline is poorly developed on the face and body.

Small group

The formation of small races occurred due to genetic fusion between the peoples of large races and the settlement of people to all corners of the Earth, where people developed new characteristics for adaptation.

The Caucasian race includes the following subraces:

• Atlantic;
• Baltic;
• White Sea-Baltic;
• Central European (dominates in numbers);
• Mediterranean.

The Mongoloid race is divided into:

• South Asian;
• North Chinese;
• East Asian;
• Arctic;
• American (some authors classify it as large).

The predominant Mongoloids are the Chinese, the Korean population, and the Japanese, who are included in the East Asian subrace.

The Negroid race is divided into:

• Negro;
• Bushman;
• Australian;
• Melanesian.

Origin of races

The formation of modern racial characteristics began long before our era (80-100 thousand years ago), then the Earth was inhabited by two racial groups - Negroid and Caucasoid-Mongoloid. The collapse of the latter into Mongoloid and Caucasoid occurred 45 thousand years ago.

Due to the influence of climate and the influence of society during the Neolithic period, each group of people began to acquire characteristics. Isolated pure races existed for a long period. Since the population on the planet was small and the territory was quite large, there was no relationship between representatives of the races.

In the process of development, evolutionary growth, the emergence of communication links, people migrated, which resulted in the emergence of small races. Children born to people of different racial backgrounds had characteristics of both groups and were named accordingly.

• Mulattos is a mixture Negroid race and Caucasoid;
• mestizos- children of Mongoloids and Caucasians;
• sambo- the offspring of Mongoloids and Negroids.

Theories of the origin of human races

Two theories about the origin of human races dominate among scientists: polycentric and monocentric.

Supporters polycentric theory origins say that humanity was born in various parts world and developed independently, independently on its territory. Races were formed in parallel over many decades.

Monocentric theory considers the origin of races as the dispersal of the primitive ancestors of humanity who lived in East Africa to all parts of the Earth. Most scientists question this version.

On modern stage development, the line between the differences between species groups of people is gradually erased. Constant mixing, migration, modern adaptation of people to bad weather conditions, lack of isolation of peoples is the path to the disappearance of racial differences. People are increasingly realizing that human races are one, people are built the same, despite the color of their skin, the shape of their eyes, and race does not make any sense.

Racism

Formation distinctive features associated with their habitat and environmental conditions.

Dark skin protects the body from the harmful effects of ultraviolet rays, coarse, curly hair create an air cushion - it prevents overheating, wide nostrils cools the inhaled air, and bright skin Northern residents need it to produce vitamin D, which is synthesized under the influence of sunlight.

These signs are necessary for people to function normally and survive, and do not serve as criteria for the dominance or mental advantage of a particular race. Humanity is at the same stage of development and differences in economic level and cultural achievements are not related to race.

Racists who put forward theories about the superiority of some races over others used this for their own purposes. The displacement of indigenous people from their habitat areas, the outbreak of wars, and the seizure of territory are the main reasons for the development of racism in the 19th century.