Second Punic War map. Historical significance of the Punic Wars. Beginning of hostilities in Spain
The main object of conquest during the wars started by Rome during the Republican period (late 6th - early 3rd century BC) (Early Republic) was the land necessary to solve the problem of land hunger. Wars were a form of intra-Italian colonization. In the Republican era, cases of colonies being withdrawn from Italy were practically unknown, since the Romans sought to maintain internal unity with the Italics and the peoples that fell under their subordination.
Initially, the Romans ensured their own security in the lands surrounding Rome. Having subdued and weakened its closest neighbors, the need arose to protect itself from larger opponents outside the peninsula - then the Punic Wars began.
First Punic War (264–241). The expansion of the borders of Rome and its access to Sicily led to an aggravation of contradictions with the Carthaginian power (Punians - the second name of the Carthaginians), which, being the heir of the Phoenicians, was very powerful and had great trade connections. Before beginning of III V. Rome fought wars on its territory - Carthage also had its own problems, so its first clash with Rome occurred when Rome began to lay claim to hegemony in the Mediterranean, trying to push its borders beyond Italy. The slightest reason was enough for a clash between two states.
At the request of Messana (a city in Sicily) in 264, Rome intervened in its internal war with Syracuse and captured not only Syracuse, but also Messana itself. The west of the island was occupied by Carthage, which created fortified bases in the cities of Lilybaeum, Panormus and Drepana. The Romans advanced to the Carthaginian cities and besieged them, but at sea they were unable to compete with the new enemy, who at the first naval battle defeated the Roman fleet. In Rome, the same situation arose as under Themistocles during the Greco-Persian wars, when the need arose to create a powerful military squadron, which was immediately built. In 260, at Milae, the Romans inflicted the first major defeat on Carthage at sea.
Inspired by the victory, the Romans transferred hostilities directly to North Africa and in 256 besieged Carthage, which was ready to surrender, but Rome was not satisfied with the peace terms proposed by the besieged. The Punes began to defend themselves to the last, and the Romans, closer than ever to victory, were defeated. The fleet that rushed to their aid was lost in a storm, and the defeat turned out to be worse than ever.
Peace was concluded in 241. Carthage liberated Sicily, paid a huge indemnity (almost 80 tons of silver) and handed over Roman prisoners. Thus ended the first Punic War, reflecting an approximate equality of forces, since for almost twenty years both powers fought without a definite advantage on one side or the other.
Second Punic War (218–201). Revanchist sentiments were strong in Carthage, ideas arose for the forcible return of the territories conquered by Rome, which led to the second Punic War (218–201), the most terrible for Rome, which for the first time found itself on the brink of destruction. Carthage relied on an offensive war, moving troops to Rome through the Iberian Peninsula.
In 219, the Carthaginians captured Saguntum (modern Sagunto), which was a Roman ally on the eastern coast of Spain, which was almost completely occupied by the Punics, which served as the reason for a new war. The brilliant military leader Hannibal became the head of the Carthaginian troops. The trek started from Spain. Hannibal, with elephants and a huge army, made a heroic transition through the Alps, losing almost all the elephants and three-quarters of the army in the mountains. Nevertheless, he invaded Italy and inflicted a series of defeats on the Romans in 218 (at the Ticinus and Trebia rivers) and in 217 (an ambush at Lake Trasimene). Hannibal bypassed Rome and moved further south. The Romans avoided major battles and wore down the enemies with small skirmishes.
Decisive battle took place near the city of Cannes in 216, it was included in all textbooks of military art. Hannibal, with much smaller forces, defeated the Roman army, led by two warring consuls: a plebeian and a patrician. Hannibal placed weak units in the center of his army, and concentrated his main forces on the flanks, lining up the army in the form of an arc, with the curved side towards the Romans. When the Romans struck the center and broke through it, the flanks closed and the attackers were “in the bag”, after which the beating of the Roman soldiers began. Neither before nor after 216 did Rome suffer defeats equal to this.
It is not clear why Hannibal did not immediately go to Rome, since after the defeat at Cannes everything worked out for this the necessary conditions. If Hannibal, without wasting time, moved towards the capital, he would have every chance of capturing it. Obviously, the Carthaginians relied on the collapse of the Roman-Italian alliance, which had stood the test of war, since most of the Italian cities did not go over to Hannibal’s side, and the anti-Roman coalition did not take shape.
In 211, a turning point came in the war. The Romans took the main stronghold of the Carthaginians in Italy, the city of Capua, and Hannibal, who had not suffered a single major defeat in Italy, found himself in complete isolation, abandoned even by Carthage, who did not send help. The final collapse came after the promotion of a personality equal to Hannibal in terms of military talent. From 210 Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger became the head of the Roman troops. He quite successfully fought with the Carthaginians in Spain and advocated for the transfer of hostilities to North Africa, wanting to expel Hannibal from Italy. After Scipio's landing in Africa in 204, Hannibal was hastily recalled to his homeland. At Zama in 202, Scipio used the same technique as Hannibal at Cannae - this time the Carthaginian army was drawn into the bag. It was defeated, and Hannibal fled. The next year, 201, Carthage capitulated. Under the new peace terms, he was deprived of his overseas possessions, did not have the right to maintain a navy, and had to pay an indemnity for fifty years. He retained only a small territory in Africa.
Third Punic War (149–146). Carthage managed to recover from the defeat and began to trade extensively. Rome was wary of his new strengthening in the Western Mediterranean. The prominent senator Marcus Porcius Cato expressed these fears vividly: “Carthage must be destroyed.” Rome issued a strict ultimatum to Carthage, all points of which were satisfied, with the exception of the clearly impossible one: moving the city inland. The Romans sent an army to North Africa, which, after a long siege, took Carthage in 146. The city was razed to the ground, and the place where it was located was plowed up. From now on, the Roman province of Africa was created here, the lands of which became the state property of Rome.
From the beginning of the 2nd century, by the time the Punic Wars ended, Rome had become the only major power in the Mediterranean. Until the middle of the 2nd century. he still fought with Macedonia and the Seleucid kingdom, but, according to the Greek historian Polybius, a contemporary of the events, from that time the worldwide dominion of Rome began.
BankShpor.RU - Cheat sheet designer - BankShpor.RU
By the mid-260s BC. The Roman Republic finally subjugated the Apennine Peninsula. Further expansion of Rome made inevitable its collision with Carthage, a powerful state in North-West Africa (Libya), which controlled most of Sicily and the main sea communications in the Western Mediterranean.
First Punic War (264–241 BC)
In 284 BC A detachment of mercenaries from Campania (Mamertines) captured Messana, a large polis (city-state) on the east coast of Sicily. After the king of neighboring Syracuse, Hieron I, began a war with the Mamertines, they turned in 265 BC. for help to Rome. The Roman popular assembly decided to include Messana in the Italian Union; spring 264 BC The Roman army crossed to Sicily and, despite the opposition of the Carthaginians, occupied the city. In response, Carthage declared war on Rome. The Syracusans, together with the Carthaginians, besieged Messana, but failed. In 263 BC The Romans defeated Hiero I and forced him to enter into an alliance with them. In 262 BC they took Acragantum (Agrigentum), the most important Carthaginian fortress in Sicily; the Carthaginians were driven out to the western part of the island. To cope with the Carthaginian fleet, which devastated the shores of Italy with impunity, the Romans built by 260 BC. 20 warships. In 260 BC The Carthaginian fleet defeated the Roman squadron at the Aeolian Islands, but was then defeated at Cape Mila.
Having failed to achieve a decisive advantage in the fight against the Carthaginians for Sicily in 259–257 BC, the Romans decided to transfer military operations to Africa. In 256 BC, having defeated the Carthaginian fleet at Cape Eknom, they landed in Klupais Bay (east of Carthage). Having suffered a series of setbacks, the Carthaginians turned to the Roman commander Atilius Regulus with a request for peace, but Roman conditions turned out to be too difficult, and they, having mobilized all resources, assembled a large mercenary army under the command of the Spartan Xanthippus. In the spring of 255 BC Xanthippus utterly defeated the Roman expeditionary army. Although the Roman fleet defeated the Carthaginian squadron at Cape Hermus, most of it was then lost during a storm.
From 254 BC Sicily again became the main arena of military action. In 254 BC The Romans captured the large Carthaginian fortress of Panormus on the northwestern coast of Sicily and built a new fleet, which, however, in the next year, 253 BC, during a raid on the coast of Africa, was again destroyed by a storm. By the early 240s BC. The Romans gradually subjugated all of Sicily and blocked the last two Carthaginian strongholds - Lilybaeum and Drepana. But the attempt to take Lilybaeum in 249 BC. failed, and in 248 BC. The Roman fleet once again fell victim to the storm. Headed in 247 BC. Carthaginian troops in Sicily, the energetic Hamilcar Barca launched active operations against the Romans, making constant raids on the shores of Italy. The situation changed only when the Romans, with great effort (the introduction of an emergency tax), built a new fleet. In March 241 BC. this fleet defeated the Carthaginian squadron at the Aegatian Islands. Realizing the inevitability of the fall of Lilybaeum and Drepana, Carthage was forced to make peace, ceding its Sicilian possessions to Rome and obliging to pay a large indemnity. As a result of the First Punic War The Roman Republic became the strongest state in the Western Mediterranean.
Second Punic War (218–201 BC)
The First Punic War did not break the power of Carthage, and a new clash was inevitable. In 238 BC, taking advantage of the unrest in Carthage, the Romans took Sardinia from him and annexed Corsica. In 237 BC the Carthaginians sent Hamilcar Barca to Iberia (Spain), who, having collected strong army and taking advantage of Rome’s wars with the Gauls and Illyrians, he conquered the eastern coast of the Iberian (Iberian) Peninsula. After the death of Hamilcar in 228 BC. his work was continued by his son-in-law Hasdrubal (killed in 220 BC), and then by his son Hannibal. In an effort to limit the expansion of the Carthaginians, the Romans extracted from them in 226 BC. obligations not to expand their possessions north of the river. Iber (modern Ebro).
In 219 BC Hannibal captured the Iberian city of Saguntum, allied with Rome. In response, the Roman Senate declared war on Carthage. In 218 BC unexpectedly for the Romans, Hannibal made the most difficult transition from Northern Iberia through the Alps to Italy and defeated two Roman armies on the river. Ticin (modern Ticino) and on the river. Trebia; he was supported by the Ligurian and Gallic tribes. Having established control over Northern Italy, Hannibal in 217 BC. invaded central Italy; spring 217 BC he severely defeated the consul Gaius Flaminius at Lake Trasimene, but then moved not to Rome, but to Apulia, hoping to win over the Italian communities. However, the majority of the Italians remained loyal to Rome. Hannibal's position became more complicated when the Romans elected Fabius Maximus as dictator, who used new tactics - he avoided a general battle and wore down the enemy in small skirmishes. But in 216 BC. The Romans abandoned this tactic. In June 216 BC. consul Terence Varro gave the Carthaginians a decisive battle at Cannae and suffered a terrible defeat; many cities in Bruttium, Lucania, Picenum and Samnium, as well as the second largest city in Italy, Capua, went over to Hannibal; The Macedonian kingdom of Syracuse entered into an alliance with Carthage. In such difficult conditions, Rome mobilized all its forces; he managed to prevent the fall of a significant part of the Italian allies and assemble a new army. In an effort to lure the Carthaginians away from Italy, the Romans opened new fronts in Spain and Sicily. However, until the end of the 210s BC. they were unable to achieve significant success. In Italy, Hannibal in 213 BC. thwarted the Romans' attempt to take Capua, and in 212 BC. won several victories in Lucania and Apulia and captured the largest southern Italian port of Tarentum. In Spain, the Roman army, although it won in 214–213 BC. series of victories, in 212 BC was completely destroyed by Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, in the battle on the river. Ebro. The Romans were more successful in Sicily, where consul Claudius Marcellus in 212 BC. took Syracuse.
The turning point in favor of the Romans occurred in 211 BC, when they captured Capua; this was not prevented by Hannibal’s demonstrative campaign against Rome (“Hannibal is at the gates!”). In 210 BC Cornelius Scipio the Elder was sent to Spain, who in 209 BC. took New Carthage, the center of the Carthaginian possessions on the Iberian Peninsula. In the same year, in Italy, Fabius Maximus returned Torent to Roman rule. In 207 BC The Romans defeated the army at the Gallic Seine, which Hasdrubal brought from Spain to help Hannibal. In 206 BC The Carthaginians were forced to finally cleanse Spain.
In the spring of 204 BC Scipio landed in North Africa, and in 203 BC. defeated the Carthaginians on the Great Plains, which forced the Carthaginian authorities to recall Hannibal from Italy. In 202 BC With the support of the Numidian king Masinissa, Scipio won a decisive victory over Hannibal at Zama. In 201 BC Carthage had to accept difficult peace conditions: he ceded Spain and all of his island possessions in the Mediterranean to the Romans, transferred almost the entire fleet to them, pledged to pay a huge indemnity for fifty years and not wage war without the consent of the Roman Senate. As a result of the Second Punic War, Rome became the hegemon of the Western Mediterranean, and Carthage lost its importance as a great power.
Third Punic War (149–146 BC)
Carthage quickly paid an indemnity to Rome and regained its former importance as the largest transit center, which caused serious concerns in the Roman ruling circles; Senator Cato the Elder was a particularly fierce opponent of Carthage, ending each of his speeches with the words: “Carthage must be destroyed!” Taking advantage of the fact that the Carthaginians, contrary to the terms of the peace of 201 BC. created an army to repel the attack of the Numidians, the Roman Senate declared to them in 149 BC. war. The Carthaginians agreed to disarm, but categorically rejected the Romans’ demand to raze the city and move deeper into the mainland and decided to resist to the last. The Roman army besieged Carthage and, after a desperate three-year defense, took it in the spring of 146 BC. By decree of the Senate, the city was burned, and the place on which it stood was cursed; Carthage's possessions became part of the Roman state as the province of Africa.
Ivan Krivushin
Until the beginning 3rd century Rome is waging continuous wars with its neighbors. There was a crop failure in Rome, the solution was to die or steal from neighbors. Last var. Preferred. But crop failure also occurred among neighbors. Then it went so well, they stole in reserve. It is also interesting to subjugate, and they began to slowly unite the lands, but in a cunning way. Besides Rome - favorite and unloved allies.
By the 3rd century. Rome claims to unify Italy. They are hindered by the Greek. cities.
And then it turns out that there is Carthage (the western part of the basin Mediterranean Sea) – the era of the Punic Wars begins.
First Punic War (264–241). The expansion of Rome's borders and its access to Sicily led to aggravation of contradictions with the Carthaginian power.
By request Messana(city in Sicily) in 264 Rome intervened in her internal war with Syracuse and captured not only Syracuse, but also Messana itself. The west of the island was occupied by Carthage, which created fortified bases in the cities Lilybey, Panorm And Drepana. The Romans advanced towards the Carthaginian cities and besieged them. IN 260 g. at Milah The Romans inflicted the first major defeat on Carthage at sea.
V 256 Carthage was besieged, which was ready to surrender, but Rome was not satisfied with the peace terms proposed by the besieged. The Punes began to defend themselves to the last, and the Romans, closer than ever to victory, were defeated. The fleet that rushed to their aid was lost in a storm, and the defeat turned out to be worse than ever.
The world was concluded in 241 Carthage liberated Sicily, paid a huge indemnity (almost 80 tons of silver) and handed over Roman prisoners.
Second Punic War (218–201). Revanchist sentiments were strong in Carthage, ideas arose for the forcible return of the territories conquered by Rome, which led to second Punic war(218–201 ). Carthage relied on an offensive war, moving troops to Rome through the Iberian Peninsula.
IN 219 the city was captured by the Carthaginians Saguntum. A brilliant military leader became the head of the Carthaginian troops Hannibal. The trek started from Spain. Hannibal, with elephants and a huge army, made a heroic transition through the Alps, losing almost all the elephants and three-quarters of the army in the mountains. Nevertheless, he invaded Italy and inflicted a series of defeats on the Romans in 218 city (near rivers Titsine And Trebia) and in 217 g. (ambush at Lake Trasimene). Hannibal bypassed Rome and moved further south. The Romans avoided major battles and wore down their enemies with small skirmishes.
The decisive battle took place near the city Cannes V 216 g. Hannibal, with much smaller forces, defeated the Roman army, led by two warring consuls: a plebeian and a patrician.
IN 211 a turning point came in the war. The Romans took the main stronghold of the Carthaginians in Italy, the city I'm dripping, and Hannibal found himself completely isolated. WITH 210 became the head of the Roman troops Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger. He quite successfully fought with the Carthaginians in Spain and advocated for the transfer of hostilities to North Africa, wanting to expel Hannibal from Italy. After Scipio's landing in Africa 204 Mr. Hannibal was hastily recalled to his homeland. At Zame V 202 The Carthaginian army was defeated, and Hannibal fled. In the next one, 201 g., Carthage capitulated. Under the new peace terms, he was deprived of his overseas possessions, did not have the right to maintain a navy, and had to pay an indemnity for fifty years. He retained only a small territory in Africa.
Third Punic War (149–146). Carthage managed to recover from the defeat and began to trade extensively. Rome was wary of his new strengthening in the Western Mediterranean. "Carthage must be destroyed." Rome issued a strict ultimatum to Carthage, all points of which were satisfied, with the exception of the clearly impossible one: moving the city inland. The Romans sent an army to North Africa, which, after a long siege, took Carthage in 146 The city was razed to the ground, and the place where it was located was plowed up. From now on, a Roman province was created here Africa, whose lands became the state property of Rome.
In 242 BC. e. A peace treaty was signed, ending the First Punic War. As a result of this agreement, Carthage lost control over the income from the possession of Sicily, and the almost monopoly trade of the Carthaginians in the Western Mediterranean was greatly undermined by Rome. As a result, Carthage was in a difficult economic situation, and its ruling dynasty of the Barcids was at a political disadvantage - the opposition intensified. Even then it was clear that the Second Punic War would soon take place between Rome and Carthage with the aim of destroying one of them, since there was no place for two major powers in the Mediterranean.
Hamilcar, commander-in-chief of the Carthaginian army, launched campaigns to conquer the territories of Spain. Firstly, the Iberian Peninsula was very rich in natural resources, and secondly, it was possible to get to Italy quite quickly from Spain. Hamilcar, together with his son-in-law Hasdrubal, was active in expanding the borders of Carthage for almost 10 years, until he was killed during the siege of Helica. His comrade-in-arms, Hasdrubal, became a victim of the Iberian barbarian in New Carthage, founded by him.
New Carthage instantly became the center of all Western Mediterranean trade, as well as administrative center Punic possessions. Thus, Carthage not only compensated for its losses as a result of the First War with Rome, but it also gained new markets, and the silver mines of Spain enriched the Barkids and deprived their political opponents of any support. Second Punic War 218-201 BC e. was only a matter of time.
Roman politicians and military leaders were very concerned about the growing power of Carthage. Rome understood that now it was not too late to stop the Poons, but after some time it would be difficult. Therefore, the Romans began to look for a reason to start a war. During the lifetime of Hannibal's father, Hamilcar, a border was drawn between Carthage and Rome in Spain along the Iber River.
Rome enters into an alliance with Sogunt. It was clearly directed against Carthage, and specifically to stop its advance further north. The beginning of the Second Punic War was approaching, Rome did not need such a strong neighbor, but it also could not openly act as an aggressor, so an alliance was concluded with Sogunt. It is clear that Rome did not intend to defend its ally, but Carthage’s attack on it provided a pretext for starting a war.
Hannibal was destined to become a symbol of the struggle against Roman rule in the Mediterranean basin; he succeeded in what no one had dared to do before him. He was a talented commander and military leader; his soldiers respected him not for his high origins, but for his personal merits and leadership qualities.
From an early age, Father Hamilcar took his son on hikes. All his adult life he was in military camps, where from childhood he looked death in the face. Dozens, hundreds, if not thousands of people were killed before his eyes. He's already used to it. Constant training turned Hannibal into a skilled fighter, and his study of military affairs turned him into a brilliant commander. Meanwhile, Hamilcar did everything in order to get closer to the Hellenistic world, so he taught the Greek alphabet to his son and accustomed him to the culture of the Greeks. The father understood that Rome could not be dealt with without allies, and he taught his sons to their culture, and also encouraged an alliance. Important role Hannibal was to play a role in this process. He had been planning the Second Punic War for many years. And after the death of his father, he swore that he would destroy Rome.
There are three main reasons that led to the outbreak of the second war between Rome and Carthage:
After the death of Hamilcar and the assassination of Hasdrubal, Hannibal was elected commander in chief. Then he had just turned 25 years old, he was full of strength and determination to destroy Rome. In addition, he had a fairly good set of knowledge in the field of military affairs and, of course, leadership qualities.
Hannibal did not hide from anyone that he wanted to attack Sogunt, whose ally was Rome, and thereby involve the latter in the war. However, Hannibal did not attack first. He had Soguntus attack the Iberian tribes that were under the rule of Carthage, and only after that he moved his forces against the “aggressor”. Hannibal rightly counted on the fact that Rome would not lead military assistance Soguntu, because he himself fought against the Gauls and Illyrian pirates. The siege of Sogunt lasted 7 months, after which the fortress was taken. Rome never provided military assistance to its ally. After the capture of Sogunt, Rome sent an embassy to Carthage, which declared war. The Second Punic War has begun!
The war lasted more than 15 years. During this time, military clashes either between Rome and Carthage, or between their allies, almost never ceased. Tens of thousands of people died. Over the years, the advantage changed hands: if in the initial period of the war luck was on Hannibal’s side, then after some time the Romans became more active, inflicting a number of major defeats poonam in Iberia and North Africa. Hannibal remained on the Apennine Peninsula. In Italy, Hannibal himself achieved high results, forcing the entire local population to tremble before his name.
The Second Punic War showed that Hannibal had no equal in open battle. This is evidenced by the battles of the Ticinus and Trebbia rivers, Lake Trasimene and, of course, the legendary battle of Cannae, which are sewn into military history red thread.
The fighting took place on several fronts: in Italy, Spain, Sicily, North Africa and Macedonia, but the “engine” of Carthage and its allies was Hannibal’s army and himself. Therefore, Rome set itself the goal of “bleeding” it, blocking the routes of provisions, weapons and reinforcements for waging war in Italy. Rome succeeded when he realized that Hannibal first needed to be exhausted without general battles, and then finished off. This plan was successful, but before it, Rome suffered one defeat after another, especially the Battle of Cannae. In this battle, Carthage had 50,000 soldiers, Rome - 90,000. The advantage was almost twofold, but even with such a numerical superiority, Rome failed to win. During the battle, 70,000 Roman soldiers were killed and 16,000 were captured, while Hannibal lost only 6,000 men.
There are a number of reasons that led to the victory of Rome. Firstly, this is the fact that the army of Carthage consisted mainly of mercenaries, who did not care at all who they were fighting for - they received payment for it. The mercenaries did not have any patriotic feelings, unlike the Romans, who defended their homeland.
Secondly, the Carthaginians themselves, located in Africa, often did not understand why they needed this war. Within the country, the Barkids again formed a serious opposition that opposed the war with Rome. Even after the Battle of Cannae, the oligarchs of Carthage halfheartedly sent small reinforcements to Hannibal, although this help could have been much more significant, and then the outcome of the war would have been completely different. The whole point is that they feared the strengthening of Hannibal's power and the establishment of a dictatorship, which would be followed by the destruction of the oligarchy as a social class.
Thirdly, the rebellions and betrayals that awaited Carthage at every turn, and the lack of real help from its ally, Macedonia.
Fourthly, this is, of course, the genius of the Roman military school, which acquired a wealth of experience during the war. At the same time, for Rome this war became a difficult test, putting the Roman Republic on the brink of survival. The reasons for the defeat of Carthage in the Second Punic War can still be listed, but they will all stem from these 4 main ones, which led to the defeat of one of the most powerful armies of the Ancient World.
The two wars were completely different, although they have a similar name. The first was aggressive on both sides, it developed as a result of the rivalry between Rome and Carthage for possession of the rich island of Sicily. The second was aggressive only from the side of Carthage, while the Roman army carried out a liberation mission.
The result in both the First and Second Wars was the victory of Rome, a huge indemnity imposed on Carthage, and the establishment of borders. After the end of the Second Punic War, the causes, consequences and historical significance of which are difficult to overestimate, Carthage was generally prohibited from having a fleet. He lost all his overseas possessions and was subjected to an exorbitant tax for 50 years. In addition, he could not start wars without the consent of Rome.
The Second Punic War could have changed the course of history if the commander-in-chief of the Carthaginian forces, Hannibal, had greater support within the country. He could have defeated Rome. Moreover, everything was heading towards this; as a result of the Battle of Cannae, Rome did not have a large army capable of resisting Carthage, but Hannibal, with the available forces, would not have been able to capture a well-fortified Rome. He was waiting for support from Africa and the uprising of Italian cities against Rome, but he never received either the first or the second...