Technical achievements of the second half of the 19th century. The most important technical inventions of the 19th century. Mechanical engineering and industry

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...2

1. Scientific technical inventions late 19th and early 20th centuries…………………...3

2. Structural changes in industry………………………………...7

3. The influence of scientific technical progress on the world economy…………9

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….11

List of used literature……………………………………………………...12

Introduction

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the development of productive forces occurred at a rapid pace. In this regard, the volume of global industrial production has increased significantly. These changes were accompanied by the rapid development of technology, the innovations of which covered various areas production, transport and everyday life. Also, significant changes have occurred in the technology of organizing industrial production. During this period, many completely new industries arose that did not exist before. There have also been significant shifts in the distribution of productive forces, both at the international level and within individual states.

Such rapid development of global industry was associated with the scientific and technological revolution of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Through the introduction of achievements of scientific and technological progress, the development of industry in the 19th and 20th centuries. led to significant changes in the conditions and way of life of all mankind.

The purpose of writing this work is to analyze scientific and technological achievements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as to determine their impact on global economic development.

When writing this work, it is necessary to solve the following problems: characterization of scientific and technical inventions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries; analysis of structural changes in industry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; determining the impact of technological development on the global economy.

Scientific and technical inventions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

At the end of the 19th century, the so-called “Era of Electricity” began. So, if the first machines were created by self-taught craftsmen, then during this period all technological implementations were closely interconnected with science. Based on the development of electricity, a new energy basis for industry and transport was developed. So, in 1867 V. Siemens invented an electromagnetic generator, with the help of which, by rotating a conductor in a magnetic field, it was possible to obtain and generate electricity. In the 70s. In the 19th century, the dynamo was invented, which was used not only as a generator of electricity, but also as a motor that converted electrical energy into dynamic energy. In 1883, the first modern generator was invented by T. Edison, and in 1891. he invented the transformer. Thanks to these inventions, industrial enterprises could now be located far from energy bases, and electricity production was organized at special enterprises - power plants. Equipping machines with electric motors significantly increased the speed of machines, which led to increased productivity and created the prerequisites for subsequent automation of the production process.

Due to the fact that the demand for electricity was constantly growing, there was a need to develop more powerful, compact and economical engines. Thus, in 1884, the English engineer Charles Parsons invented a multi-stage steam turbine, with the help of which it was possible to increase the rotation speed several times.

Internal combustion engines, which were developed by German engineers Daimler and Benz in the mid-80s, were widely used.

In 1896 German engineer R. Diesel developed an internal combustion engine with a high efficiency. A little later, this engine was adapted to operate on heavy liquid fuel, and therefore it began to be widely used in all sectors of industry and transport. In 1906, tractors with internal combustion engines appeared in the USA. Mass production Such tractors were mastered during the First World War.

During this period, one of the main industries was electrical engineering. Thus, electric lighting became widespread, which was associated with the construction of large industrial enterprises, urban development and a significant increase in electricity production.

Also, such a branch of electrical engineering as communications technology has also received widespread development. At the end of the 19th century, wire telegraph equipment was improved, and by the beginning of the 80s. 19th century, work was carried out on the design and practical application telephone equipment. Telephone communications began to quickly spread throughout all countries of the world. The first telephone exchange was built in the USA in 1877, in 1879. a telephone exchange was built in Paris, and in 1881 - in Berlin, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Riga and Warsaw.

One of the main achievements of the scientific and technological revolution was the invention of radio - wireless telecommunications, which is based on the use electromagnetic waves. These waves were first discovered by the German physicist G. Hertz. In practice, this connection was applied by the outstanding Russian scientist A.S. Popov, who on May 7, 1885 demonstrated the world's first radio receiver.

At the beginning of the 20th century, another branch of electrical engineering was invented - electronics. So, in 1904 English scientist J. A. Fleming invented a two-electrode lamp (diode), which could be used to convert the frequencies of electrical vibrations. In 1907 American designer Lee de Forest invented a three-electrode lamp (triode), with which it was possible not only to convert the frequency of electrical vibrations, but also to amplify weak vibrations.

Thus, the industrial use of electrical energy, the construction of power plants, the expansion of electric lighting in cities, and the development of telephone communications determined fast development electrical industry.

The rapid development of mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, military production and railway transport created a demand for ferrous metals. Technical innovations began to be applied in metallurgy, and metallurgical technology achieved great success. The designs of blast furnaces have changed significantly and the volumes of blast furnaces have increased. New methods of steel production were introduced through the processing of cast iron in a converter under strong blast.

In the 80s In the 19th century, the electrolytic method of producing aluminum was introduced, which led to the development of non-ferrous metallurgy. The electrolytic method was also used to obtain copper.

Another main area of ​​scientific and technological progress was transport. Thus, in connection with technological development, new types of transport have appeared. The growth in the volume and speed of transportation contributed to the improvement of railway technology. The rolling stock has been improved railways ah: the power, traction force, speed, weight and size of steam locomotives and the carrying capacity of cars have increased. Since 1872, automatic brakes were introduced in railway transport, and in 1876. An automatic coupling design has been developed.

At the end of the 19th century, experiments were carried out in Germany, Russia and the USA to introduce electric traction on railways. The first electric city tram line opened in Germany in 1881. In Russia, the construction of tram lines began in 1892.

During the period of scientific and technological progress of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. was invented the new kind transport – automobile. The first cars were designed by German engineers K. Benz and G. Daimler. Industrial production of cars began in the 90s. 19th century. The high pace of development of the automobile industry contributed to the construction of highways.

Another new mode of transport was air Transport, in the development of which airplanes played a decisive role. The first attempts to design aircraft with steam engines were made by A.F. Mozhaisky, K. Ader, and H. Maxim. Aviation became widespread after the installation of light and compact gasoline engines. At first, airplanes had a sporting value, then they began to be used in military affairs, and then for transporting cars.

During this period it was also organized chemical methods processing of raw materials in almost all industries. In industries such as mechanical engineering, electrical production, and the textile industry, the chemistry of synthetic fibers has begun to be widely used.

Scientific and technological progress of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. contributed to the introduction of many innovations to improve the technical sphere of light, printing and other industries.

The 19th century laid the foundations for the development of 20th century science and created the preconditions for many of the future inventions and technological innovations that we enjoy today. Scientific discoveries 19th century were made in many areas and have had big influence for further development. Technological progress advanced uncontrollably. To whom are we grateful for those comfortable conditions, in which modern humanity now lives?

Scientific discoveries of the 19th century: Physics and electrical engineering

James Clark Maxwell

A key feature in the development of science of this period of time is the widespread use of electricity in all branches of production. And people could no longer refuse to use electricity, having felt its significant benefits. Many scientific discoveries of the 19th century were made in this area of ​​physics.

At that time, scientists began to closely study electromagnetic waves and their effect on various materials. The introduction of electricity into medicine began.

In the 19th century, such famous scientists as the Frenchman Andre-Marie Ampère, two Englishmen Michael Faraday and James Clark Maxwell, and the Americans Joseph Henry and Thomas Edison worked in the field of electrical engineering. In 1831, Michael Faraday noticed that if a copper wire moves in a magnetic field, crossing lines of force, an electric current arises in it. This is how the concept appeared electromagnetic induction

. This discovery paved the way for the invention of electric motors. In 1865, James Clark Maxwell developed the electromagnetic theory of light. He suggested the existence of electromagnetic waves through which transmission Electric Energy in space. In 1883, Heinrich Hertz proved the existence of these waves. He also determined that their propagation speed is 300 thousand km/sec. Based on this discovery, Guglielmo Marconi and A. S. Popov created a wireless telegraph - radio. This invention became the basis for modern technologies

wireless transmission of information, radio and television, including all types of mobile communications, the operation of which is based on the principle of data transmission via electromagnetic waves.

Chemistry

DI. Mendelev - a scientist who made many scientific discoveries in the 19th century In the field of chemistry in the 19th century, the most significant discovery was D.I. Mendeleev's Periodic Law . Based on this discovery, a table of chemical elements was developed, which Mendeleev saw in a dream. In accordance with this table, he assumed that there were still unknown chemical elements

. The predicted chemical elements scandium, gallium and germanium were subsequently discovered between 1875 and 1886.

Astronomy XIX century was the century of formation and rapid development of another field of science - astrophysics . Astrophysics is a branch of astronomy that studies the properties. This term appeared in the mid-60s of the 19th century. At its origins stood the German professor at the University of Leipzig, astronomer Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner. The main research methods used in astrophysics are photometry, photography and spectral analysis. One of the inventors of spectral analysis is Kirchhoff. He conducted the first studies of the spectrum of the Sun. As a result of these studies, in 1859 he was able to obtain a picture of the solar spectrum and more accurately determine the chemical composition of the Sun.

Medicine and Biology

With the advent of the 19th century, science begins to develop at an unprecedented speed. There are so many scientific discoveries being made that it is difficult to track them in detail. Medicine and biology are not lagging behind in this regard. The most significant contributions in this area were made by the German microbiologist Robert Koch, the French physician Claude Bernard and the microbiological chemist Louis Pasteur.

Bernard laid the foundations of endocrinology - the science of the functions and structure of the endocrine glands. Louis Pasteur became one of the founders of immunology and microbiology. The pasteurization technology is named after this scientist.- This is a method of heat treatment of mainly liquid products. This technology is used to destroy vegetative forms of microorganisms to increase the shelf life of food products such as beer and milk.

Robert Koch discovered the causative agent of tuberculosis, the bacillus anthrax and Vibrio cholera. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the tuberculosis bacillus.

Computers

Although it is believed that the first computer appeared in the 20th century, the first prototypes of modern machine tools with numerical control were built already in the 19th century. Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French inventor, came up with a way to program a loom in 1804.

The essence of the invention was that the thread could be controlled using punched cards with holes in certain places where the thread was supposed to be applied to the fabric.

Mechanical engineering and industry

Already at the beginning of the 19th century, a gradual revolution in mechanical engineering began. Oliver Evans was one of the first to demonstrate a steam-powered car in Philadelphia (USA) in 1804.

At the end of the 18th century, the first lathes appeared. They were developed by English mechanic Henry Maudsley.

With the help of such machines, it was possible to replace manual labor when it was necessary to process metal with great precision. In the 19th century the principle of operation was discovered and the internal combustion engine was invented, which gave impetus to the development of faster means of transportation: steam locomotives, steamships and self-propelled vehicles, which we now call cars.

Railways also began to develop. In 1825, George Stephenson built the first railway in England. It provided rail links to the cities of Stockton and Darlington. In 1829, a branch line was laid that connected Liverpool and Manchester. If in 1840 the total length of railways was 7,700 km, then by the end of the 19th century it was already 1,080,000 km.

The 19th century is the century of the industrial revolution, the century of electricity, the century of railways. He had a significant impact on the culture and worldview of mankind and radically changed the human value system. The advent of the first electric motors, the invention of the telephone and telegraph, radio and heating devices, as well as incandescent lamps - all these scientific discoveries of the 19th century turned the lives of people of that time upside down.

The transition from manufacturing to factory production and the invention at the end of the XNUMXth century. The steam engine made the development of technical progress in industry. The content of the new stage of technical progress, which unfolded in the first half of the 19th century, consisted in the creation of machines with the help of machines. So, mechanical engineering has become one of the main sectors in industry.

A lot of metal was needed to make machines, so the metallurgical industry began to improve. The English engineer Henry Bessemer invented a rotating furnace - a converter - for the production of cast iron, iron and steel, and the French engineer Pierre Martin invented a furnace for the production of high-quality steel.

An example of technological progress in the first half of the 19th century. changes in printing began. At the beginning of the century, a manual press was used for printing. Subsequently, it gave way to a mechanical one, which was also constantly improved. In 1816, 1,100 copies of the Times newspaper were printed in London per hour, and in 1850 - already 10 thousand.

Railroads became the main means of transportation on land. On sea routes, steamships gradually replaced sailing ships. In 1807, Robert Fulton's first steamboat was tested. At the beginning of the century, the first steam-powered cars appeared in the USA and England. Their speed in England was limited to 4 km/hour.

Steam engines have found application in agriculture. In the 40s of the XIX century. The first steam threshers appeared in England, and after some time, steam plows. From here they began to spread to other countries.

Communication means also began to improve. The telegraph apparatus, invented in 1844 by the American scientist Samuel Morse, spread very quickly.

The need to develop world trade led to the construction of canals. The largest of them was the Suez Canal, the construction of which began in 1859 by the French engineer Ferdinand Lesseps. Within ten years the construction was completed.

Evidence of the success of new technology was the construction of railway tunnels. In 1843, the construction of such a tunnel under the Thames was completed. Bridge designs began to improve. In 1818 - 1826 in England, engineer Telford built the first railway suspension bridge. Johann Roeblingow built five famous chain bridges in the United States. Famous among them is the Brooklyn Bridge in New York, the width of the middle span of which is 486 g.

So, the first half of the 19th century. became a period of rapid development of technological progress, which significantly changed the human environment. The most important step in the energy supply of industrial production and transport was the production of electricity on a large scale using dynamos, the first examples of which appeared in the 70s.

Technical event of great importance was the emergence of a new class of engines, which were designed by German inventors Nikolaus Otto (1876) and Rudolf Diesel (1897). These compact, highly economical engines running on liquid fuel quickly found application in the first car of G. Daimler and K. Benz (1886, Germany).

Gradually, the telephone, which was invented by Alexander Graham Bell (1876), the phonograph (Thomas Alva Edison, 1877), the radio (Guglielmo Marconi and Alexander Popov, 1895), cinema (brothers Louis Jean and Auguste Lume) came into use. Rugby, 1895), electric lighting of streets, workshops, apartments, etc. In 1881, a tram appeared, and soon the metro.

Significant advances have also occurred in military technology. In 1883, a machine gun by the American engineer X. Maxim appeared. The creation of aviation began. The fleet received armored ships with large-caliber cannons and submarines.

Numerous inventionsXIX - beginningXX century radically changed daily life people, especially in major cities. WITH early XIX V. A genuine revolution in communications has begun in the world. They developed as rapidly as transport.

Inventions of S. Morse

IN 1837 American artist S. Morse(1791-1872) invented an electromagnetic telegraph apparatus, and the following year he developed a special alphabet, later named after him - “Morse code” - for transmitting messages. On his initiative, the first Washington-Baltimore telegraph line was built in 1844. In 1850, an underwater telegraph cable connected England with continental Europe, and in 1858 with the United States. Scotsman A.-G Bell(1847-1922), who moved to the USA, invented in 1876 telephone set, first presented at the World's Fair in Philadelphia.

Inventions of T. Edison

He was particularly inventive Thomas Alva Edison(1847-1931), who had about 4 thousand patents for various inventions in 35 countries. He improved the Bell telephone, and in 1877 he invented a device for recording and reproducing sound - the phonograph. On its basis, engineer E. Berliner invented the gramophone and records for it in 1888, thanks to which music entered everyday life. Later, a portable modification of the gramophone appeared - the gramophone. At the end of the 19th century. Factory production of gramophone records was established in the USA, and the first double-sided discs appeared in 1903. Edison invented a safe incandescent lamp in 1879 and launched its industrial production. He became a successful entrepreneur and earned the nickname “King of Electricity.” By 1882, Edison owned a network of factories for the production of light bulbs, and that’s when the first power plant came into operation in New York.

Invention of the telegraph and radio

Italian G. Marconi(1874-1937) in 1897 Mr.. patented a “wireless telegraph” in England, ahead of the Russian engineer A.S. Popov, who began experiments with radio communications before him. In 1901, the Marconi company organized the first radio show through Atlantic Ocean. In 1909 he received the Nobel Prize. By this time, a diode and a triode had been invented, which made it possible to amplify the radio signal. Electronic radio tubes have made radio installations compact and mobile.

Invention of television and cinema

Already at the beginning of the 20th century. The technical prerequisites for the invention of television and software equipment were created, and experiments were carried out with color photography. The predecessor of modern photography was the daguerreotype, which was invented in 1839 Mr. French artist and physicist L.-J.-M. Daguerre(1787-1851). IN 1895 The Lumière brothers held the first film show in Paris, and in 1908 the feature film “The Murder of the Duke of Guise” was released on French screens. In 1896, film production began in New York, and in 1903 the first American Western, The Great Train Robbery, was filmed. The center of the world film industry was the Los Angeles suburb of Hollywood, where film studios appeared in 1909. The “star” system and others were born in Hollywood distinctive features American cinema, where the first films of the greatest comic actor and director C.-S. were created. Chaplin.

Invention of the sewing and typewriter

In 1845, the American E. Howe invented the sewing machine, in 1851 I.-M. Singer improved it, and by the end of the 19th century. Sewing machines have become part of the everyday life of many housewives around the world. In 1867, the first typewriter, and in 1873 the Remington company launched their mass production. In 1903, production of the improved Underwood model began, which became the most popular brand of typewriter in the world. The widespread use of sewing and typewriters, the establishment of telephone networks and other inventions contributed to the emergence of mass female professions and the involvement of women in the workforce.

Invention of pocket and wrist watches

From the middle of the 19th century. the mass distribution of pocket watches began; British soldiers on the fronts of the Boer War began to wear wristwatches.

Invention of communal amenities

The invention of the elevator, central heating and water supply, gas and then electric lighting completely changed the living conditions of the townspeople. Material from the site

Weapon Upgrade

Technological progress also manifested itself in the production of weapons. In 1835 the American S. Colt(1814-1862) patented a 6-shot revolver, which was adopted by the American army during the war with Mexico. The Colt revolver became the most common weapon of this class, especially in the Western United States. Another American H.-S. Maksim(1840-1916), invented an easel machine gun in 1883. This formidable weapon was first tested in the colonial wars that the British waged in Africa, and then the machine gun was adopted by many armies of the world. Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. all types of weapons continued to be improved. In addition to conventional weapons, chemical weapons appeared. Combat aviation was created, and fleets included battleships, destroyers, submarines. By the beginning of the First World War, humanity had created such means of extermination that doomed it to inevitably great sacrifices.

Questions about this material:

Established in Europe in the 19th century, main value began to count scientific and technical progress. And this is no coincidence. As P. Sorokin noted, “only one XIX century. brought more discoveries and inventions than all previous centuries combined.”

The 19th century was the embodiment of unheard of technical progress, scientific and technical discoveries were made that led to changes in people's lifestyles: its beginning was marked by the development of steam power, the creation of steam engines and engines that made it possible to carry out the industrial revolution, to move from manufacturing production to industrial, factory production. . The countries of Europe and North America were covered by a network of railways, which in turn contributed to the development of industry and trade. The production of the first synthetic materials and artificial fibers began.

Scientific discoveries in the fields of physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, geology, and medicine followed one after another. Following Michael Faraday's discovery of the phenomenon of the electromagnetic arc, James Maxwell undertook the study of electromagnetic fields and developed the electromagnetic theory of light. Henri Becquerel, Pierre Curie and Marie Sklodowska-Curie, while studying the phenomenon of radioactivity, questioned the previous understanding of the law of conservation of energy.

Physical science has progressed from John Dalton's atomic theory of matter to the discovery of the complex structure of the atom. The discovery of the first elementary particle, the electron, by J. J. Thompson in 1897 was followed by the planetary theories of atomic structure by Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr. Interdisciplinary research is developing - physical chemistry, biochemistry, chemical pharmacology.

If the periodic law of chemical elements, formulated in 1869 by Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev, established the relationship between their atomic weights, then the discovery of the internal structure of the atom revealed the connection between the atomic number of an element in periodic table and the number of electrons in the layers of the shell of an atom.

Theories emerge in biology cellular structure all organisms of T. Schwan, the genetic heredity of Gregor Johann Mendel, based on which August Weismann and Thomas Morgan created the foundations of genetics. Based on research in the field of higher physiology nervous activity, I.P. Pavlov developed the theory of conditioned reflexes.

A true revolution in science was made by the works of the great naturalist Charles Darwin, “The Origin of Species” and “The Descent of Man,” which interpreted the origin of the world and man differently than Christian teaching.

Advances in biology and chemistry gave a powerful impetus to the development of medicine. French bacteriologist Louis Pasteur developed a method of preventive vaccinations against rabies and other infectious diseases, a mechanism for sterilization and pasteurization of various products, and laid the foundations for the doctrine of immunity. German microbiologist Robert Koch and his students discovered the causative agents of tuberculosis, typhoid fever, diphtheria and other diseases, and created medicines against them. New ones have appeared in the arsenal of doctors medications and tools. Doctors began to use aspirin and pyramidon, the stethoscope was invented, and X-rays were discovered.

The 19th century is the “machine age,” and this is absolutely correct, because it was then that the production of machines began with the help of the machines themselves. From the mechanical spinning jenny, humanity moved to the first modern metal loom, and from it to the automatic Jacquard loom.

XIX century called the “era of steel” - it was then that the level of steel production became an indicator of the economic power of the country. Iron and steel are replacing wood.

If the XVII-XVIII centuries. were the era of windmills, then from the end of the 18th century. The era of steam begins. In 1784, J. Watt invented the steam engine. And already in 1803. The first steam-powered car appears. On August 17, 1807, a test run of Fulton's steamship Clermont was made, and in 1814 the steam locomotive J. Stephenson was born.

The revolution in means of transport was complemented by the development of maritime communications. Thanks to steam, navigation ceased to depend on the strength of the wind, and overcoming oceanic space was accomplished in an increasingly shorter time. At the end of the 19th century. the car of G. Daimler and K. Benz appears, which has a highly economical engine running on liquid fuel, and in 1903 the first airplane of the brothers W and O. Wright appears. At the same time, the construction and improvement of roads, bridges, tunnels, and canals took place (Suez Canal, 1859-1869)

The 19th century is the century of electricity. After V.V. Petrov's discovery of the phenomenon of the electric arc, S. Morse invented the electric telegraph, A. Bell invented the telephone, and T. Edison invented the phonograph. Radio receivers by A. S. Popov and G. Marconi and the cinema of the Lumiere brothers appeared. An important innovation was the electric lighting of cities, and the horse-drawn tram gave way to the tram. In 1863, the first underground railway, the Metropolitan, appeared, and by the end of the century the metro was already operating in London, Paris, New York, Budapest, Paris and other cities. A person's life has changed radically. Thanks to discoveries and inventions, technological dominance over space, time and matter has grown unchallenged. An unprecedented spatio-temporal growth of civilization began - new territories and new layers of the past entered the spiritual world of man.

Knowledge has expanded its boundaries in depth and breadth. At the same time, new ways of overcoming time and space arose - new technology with its speeds and means of communication contributed to the fact that man was able to accommodate a larger segment of the cosmic, any point on the planet. The universe seemed to shrink and expand at the same time, everything came into contact with everyone. The world has changed qualitatively.