Nubia on the map. Nubia, Nubian kingdom, history of Nubia. Religion of the ancient Nubians

In the 19th century, Nubia's borders were defined in different ways. According to one interpretation, it included the entire Nile region south of Egypt to Abyssinia and further south, according to another - the space between Aswan and the mouth of Atbara, according to the third - the region second waterfall, the country of the ancient Nobads, or Nubs (“Uadi Nuba”). Nubia proper was usually called the region of the middle reaches of the Nile, before the confluence of the Atbara and the Ethiopian foothills, and the more southern part of the Nile basin (the territory of modern Sudan, in the 18th century - the territory of the Sennar Sultanate) was called Upper Nubia .

The name possibly comes from the ancient Egyptian word nub- gold . In ancient times, various cultures and states successively existed on the territory of Nubia, such as the kingdoms of Kerma, Kush and others. The capital of the ancient Nubian kingdoms at that time in chronological order there were the cities of Kerma, Napata and Meroe. In the 7th-14th centuries there were several Christian Nubian states here. Nubia was then Islamized and partially settled by Arab tribes. Nubia was a source of slaves and natural resources(gold and ivory).

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Ancient Nubia

The history of Nubia can be traced back 5 thousand years to the development of the Egyptian civilization that lay to the north. Ancient Egyptian culture had a powerful impact on Nubia. The first developed communities are found in Nubia during the Egyptian First Dynasty (3100-2890 BC). Around 2500 BC e. the Egyptians began to move south, and from them comes most of our knowledge of Nubia, the northern part of which the Egyptians called Uauat and the southern part Kush. The strongest Nubian political entity at that time had its center in Kerma.

Egyptian expansion was temporarily stopped by the decline of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and the invasion of the Hyksos, who became allies of the Nubians. After the establishment of the New Kingdom by 1550 BC. e. Egyptian expansion resumed, but this time it met with organized opposition. Historians are not sure whether this resistance came from individual cities or from one united empire. There is also ongoing debate as to whether statehood was founded by local residents or brought in from Egypt.

As a result of the Egyptian invasion, the region again became the possession of Egypt under the control of Egypt, whose army maintained power thanks to a number of fortresses, some of which were built during the Middle Kingdom (for example, Buchen). Nubia, up to the fourth and fifth cataracts of the Nile, was included in Egypt during the 18th dynasty of the New Kingdom and for five centuries was subordinated to the pharaoh's governors, who bore the title of the royal son of Kush. With the collapse of the New Kingdom around 1070. BC. Kush became an independent state with its capital at Napata.

Kushite Kingdom (Napata)

The territory of Upper Nubia from Meroe to the third cataract of the Nile was united under the rule of Alara in the period around 780-755 BC. e. Alara was considered the founder of the Nubian royal dynasty by his successors, the XXV Kushite Dynasty of Egypt. The kingdom increased its sphere of influence, and during the reign of Kashta, a follower of Alara, dominated southern Egypt, the region of Elephantine and even Thebes. Kashta forced Shepenupet I, the half-sister of Pharaoh Takelot III, who served as the Divine Wife of Amun, to recognize his daughter Amenirdis I as his heir. After this event, Thebes came under the de facto control of Napata. The power of the kingdom has reached highest point during the reign of Piankha, successor to Kashte, who conquered all of Egypt by the age of 20, and began the XXV Dynasty.

Kush again became a separate state from Egypt when the Assyrians invaded Egypt in 671 BC. e. The last Kushite king to attempt to regain control of Egypt was Tanuatamun, who was soundly defeated by the Assyrians in 664 BC. e. After this, the influence of the kingdom in Egypt began to decline and ceased by 656 BC. e. when Psammetichus I, the founder of the XXVI dynasty, united all of Egypt under his rule. In 591 BC. e. The Egyptians, under the leadership of Psammetichus II, invaded Kush, possibly due to the fact that the ruler of Kush, Aspelta, was preparing an invasion of Egypt, sacked and burned Napata.

Meroitic kingdom

From various historical sources it follows that Aspelta's followers moved the capital to Meroe, far south of Napata. The exact timing of the transfer remains unclear, but many historians believe it occurred during Aspelta's reign, in response to the Egyptian invasion of lower Nubia. Other historians believe that the transfer of the kingdom to the south was associated with iron mining - around Meroe, unlike Napata, there were extensive forests that could serve as a source of fuel for blast furnaces. In addition, the arrival of Greek traders in the region meant that the Kushites were less dependent on the Nile trade route and could now trade with the Greek colonies on the Red Sea coast.

An alternative theory states that there were two separate but closely related states, centered on Napata and Meroe. The state with its capital in Meroe gradually eclipsed its northern neighbor. Nothing resembling a royal residence has been found north of Meroe, and Napata may have been only a religious center. However, Napata certainly remained an important center, with kings being crowned and buried there even during periods when they lived in Meroe.

The final transfer of the capital to Meroe occurred around 300 BC. e., when monarchs began to be buried there, and not in Napata. There is a theory that this transfer reflects the liberation of the monarchs from the power of the priests of Napata. According to Diodorus Siculus, the priests ordered a Meroitic ruler named Ergamenes to commit suicide, but he flouted tradition and executed the priests instead.

In the early period, the Nubians used Egyptian hieroglyphs, but during the Meroitic period a new, still incompletely deciphered Meroitic script was developed, which was used to write the Meroitic language. The country traded with its neighbors and continued to build monuments and tombs.

In 23, the Roman prefect of Egypt, Gaius Petronius, invaded Nubia in response to a Nubian attack on southern Egypt. He plundered the north of the country, including Napata, and returned to Egypt.

Christian Nubia

By the 7th century AD e. Nubia consisted of small scattered Christian kingdoms (Aloa, Mukurra, Nobatia) and possessions.

Muslim Nubia

Around 960, an oligarchic state was formed in eastern Nubia, led by the top of the Arab Rabia tribe. Other Arab tribes settled Lower Nubia, which was annexed by Egypt in 1174. In 1272, the ruler of the state of Dongola, in alliance with the crusaders, attacked Egypt, but was defeated, and in 1275, Dongola became a vassal of Egypt.

Religion

After Christianization in the 6th century, the church in Nubia, like Nubia, was cut off from all contacts with Byzantium and, in general, with the entire Christian world. And yet, for many centuries, she managed to hold back the Islamic offensive and maintain her Christianity and her political independence. Nubia remained a Christian region until the end of the Middle Ages.

The Nubian Church was ruled by the Coptic Egyptian Church. All bishops were appointed directly by the Cairo patriarch and were responsible only to him. The Church in Nubia was not organized as an autocephalous or even autonomous national entity: it was seen as part of the Coptic Church. As a result, due to this Cairo control, the Nubian Church was unable to develop among the people the sense of ethnic solidarity that was usually decisive factor for the survival of autocephalous national churches. When Nubian Christianity faced changing political and social structure, much-needed organizational unity failed to materialize. Another important factor contributing to the slow death and eventual disappearance of Christianity south of Aswan was the inability of the Nubian Church to maintain ongoing contact with the Christian world beyond its borders.

Although the Nubian church was subordinate to Cairo, Coptic did not become its main liturgical language. It is interesting that the Nubian Eucharist (a slightly modified version of the liturgy of St. Mark) until the 12th century. served in Greek. But in parallel, starting from the 9th century, the Old Nubian language began to be used. Monasticism, which played a role in the Egyptian Church important role, in Nubia was a very little-known phenomenon: archaeological excavations have revealed only a small handful of monasteries in the entire vast country. This was also an indicator of a certain weakness of the Nubian Church.

The main factor in the Islamization of Nubia was the beginning of the 10th century. the process of buying up fertile lands in the north of the country by Egyptian Arabs, which ultimately led to the de facto independence of these lands from central authorities. Gradually, Arab Muslim settlements moved south. The population mixed through marriages; It is interesting that in such cases, as a rule, the faith of the newcomers was chosen.

In 1323, the ruler of Makuria, the largest of the Nubian kingdoms, converted to Islam. Gradually the population followed their ruler. Alois remained a Christian state until the beginning of the 16th century. It was in this century that all of Nubia came under the control of Islamic rulers, and the ancient kingdom became an integral part of the Arab and Islamic world.

In the 19th century, Nubia's borders were defined in different ways. According to one interpretation, it included the entire Nile region south of Egypt to Abyssinia and further south, according to another - the space between Aswan and the mouth of Atbara, according to the third - the region second waterfall, the country of the ancient Nobads, or Nubs (“Uadi Nuba”). Nubia proper was usually called the region of the middle reaches of the Nile, before the confluence of the Atbara and the Ethiopian foothills, and the more southern part of the Nile basin (the territory of modern Sudan, in the 18th century - the territory of the Sennar Sultanate) was called Upper Nubia .

The name possibly comes from the ancient Egyptian word nub- gold . In ancient times, various cultures and states successively existed on the territory of Nubia, such as the kingdoms of Kerma, Kush and others. The capitals of the ancient Nubian kingdoms at that time, chronologically, were the cities of Kerma, Napata and Meroe. In the 7th-14th centuries there were several Christian Nubian states here. Nubia was then Islamized and partially settled by Arab tribes. Nubia was a source of slaves and natural resources (gold and ivory).

Story

Ancient Nubia

The history of Nubia can be traced back 5 thousand years to the development of the Egyptian civilization that lay to the north. Ancient Egyptian culture had a powerful impact on Nubia. The first developed communities are found in Nubia during the Egyptian First Dynasty (3100-2890 BC). Around 2500 BC e. the Egyptians began to move south, and from them comes most of our knowledge of Nubia, the northern part of which the Egyptians called Uauat and the southern part Kush. The strongest Nubian political entity at that time had its center in Kerma.

Egyptian expansion was temporarily stopped by the decline of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and the invasion of the Hyksos, who became allies of the Nubians. After the establishment of the New Kingdom by 1550 BC. e. Egyptian expansion resumed, but this time it met with organized opposition. Historians are not sure whether this resistance came from individual cities or from one united empire. There is also ongoing debate as to whether statehood was founded by local residents or brought in from Egypt.

As a result of the Egyptian invasion, the region again became the possession of Egypt under the control of Egypt, whose army maintained power thanks to a number of fortresses, some of which were built during the Middle Kingdom (for example, Buchen). Nubia, up to the fourth and fifth cataracts of the Nile, was included in Egypt during the 18th dynasty of the New Kingdom and was subordinated for five centuries to the pharaoh's governors, who bore the title of the royal son of Kush. With the collapse of the New Kingdom around 1070. BC. Kush became an independent state with its capital at Napata.

Kushite Kingdom (Napata)

The territory of Upper Nubia from Meroe to the third cataract of the Nile was united under the rule of Alara in the period around 780-755 BC. e. Alara was considered the founder of the Nubian royal dynasty by his successors, the XXV, Kushite dynasty of Egypt. The kingdom increased its sphere of influence, and during the reign of Kashta, a follower of Alara, dominated southern Egypt, the region of Elephantine and even Thebes. Kashta forced Shepenupet I, the half-sister of Pharaoh Takelot III, who served as the Divine Wife of Amun, to recognize his daughter Amenirdis I as his heir. After this event, Thebes came under the de facto control of Napata. The power of the kingdom reached its highest point during the reign of Piankha, successor to Kashte, who conquered all of Egypt by the age of 20, and marked the beginning of the XXV Dynasty.

Kush again became a separate state from Egypt when the Assyrians invaded Egypt in 671 BC. e. The last Kushite king to attempt to regain control of Egypt was Tanuatamun, who was soundly defeated by the Assyrians in 664 BC. e. After this, the influence of the kingdom in Egypt began to decline and ceased by 656 BC. e. when Psammetichus I, founder of the XXVI Dynasty, united all of Egypt under his rule. In 591 BC. e. The Egyptians, under the leadership of Psammetichus II, invaded Kush, possibly because the ruler of Kush, Aspelta, was preparing an invasion of Egypt, sacked and burned Napata.

Meroitic kingdom

Pyramids at Meroe.

Various historical sources indicate that Aspelta's followers moved the capital to Meroe, far south of Napata. The exact timing of the transfer remains unclear, but many historians believe it occurred during Aspelta's reign, in response to the Egyptian invasion of lower Nubia. Other historians believe that the transfer of the kingdom to the south was associated with iron mining - around Meroe, unlike Napata, there were extensive forests that could serve as a source of fuel for blast furnaces. In addition, the arrival of Greek traders in the region meant that the Kushites were less dependent on the Nile trade route and could now trade with the Greek colonies on the Red Sea coast.

An alternative theory states that there were two separate but closely related states, centered on Napata and Meroe. The state with its capital in Meroe gradually eclipsed its northern neighbor. Nothing resembling a royal residence has been found north of Meroe, and Napata may have been only a religious center. However, Napata certainly remained an important center, with kings being crowned and buried there even during periods when they lived in Meroe.

The final transfer of the capital to Meroe occurred around 300 BC. e., when monarchs began to be buried there, and not in Napata. There is a theory that this transfer reflects the liberation of the monarchs from the power of the priests of Napata. According to Diodorus Siculus, the priests ordered a Meroitic ruler named Ergamenes to commit suicide, however, he flouted tradition and executed the priests instead.

In the early period, the Nubians used Egyptian hieroglyphs, but during the Meroitic period a new, still incompletely deciphered Meroitic script was developed, which was used to write the Meroitic language. The country traded with its neighbors and continued to build monuments and tombs.

In 23, the Roman prefect of Egypt, Gaius Petronius, invaded Nubia in response to a Nubian attack on southern Egypt. He plundered the north of the country, including Napata, and returned to Egypt.

Christian Nubia

By the 7th century AD e. Nubia consisted of small scattered Christian kingdoms (Aloa, Mukurra, Nobatia) and possessions.

Muslim Nubia

As a result of the Arab conquests, Nubia found itself cut off from all contacts with Byzantium and, in general, with the entire Christian world. And yet, for many centuries, she managed to hold back the Islamic offensive and maintain her Christianity and her political independence. Nubia remained a Christian region until the end of the Middle Ages.

The Nubian Church was ruled by the Coptic Egyptian Church. All bishops were appointed directly by the Cairo patriarch and were responsible only to him. The Church in Nubia was not organized as an autocephalous or even autonomous national entity: it was seen as part of the Coptic Church. As a result, due to this Cairo control, the Nubian Church was unable to develop among the people a sense of ethnic solidarity, which was usually a decisive factor for the survival of autocephalous national churches. When Nubian Christianity was faced with changes in political and social structure, much-needed organizational unity could not be realized. Another important factor contributing to the slow death and eventual disappearance of Christianity south of Aswan was the inability of the Nubian Church to maintain ongoing contact with the Christian world beyond its borders.

Although the Nubian Church was subordinate to Cairo, Coptic did not become its main liturgical language. It is interesting that the Nubian Eucharist (a slightly modified version of the liturgy of St. Mark) until the 12th century. served in Greek. But in parallel, starting from the 9th century, the Old Nubian language began to be used. Monasticism, which played an important role in the Egyptian Church, was a very little-known phenomenon in Nubia: archaeological excavations have discovered only a small handful of monasteries in the entire vast country. This was also an indicator of a certain weakness of the Nubian Church.

The main factor in the Islamization of Nubia was the beginning of the 10th century. the process of purchasing fertile lands in the north of the country by Egyptian Arabs, which ultimately led to the de facto independence of these lands from the central authorities. Gradually, Arab Muslim settlements moved south. The population mixed through marriages; It is interesting that in such cases, as a rule, the faith of the newcomers was chosen.

In 1323, the ruler of Makuria, the largest of the Nubian kingdoms, converted to Islam. Gradually the population followed their ruler. Alois remained a Christian state until the beginning of the 16th century. It was in this century that all of Nubia came under the control of Islamic rulers, and the ancient kingdom became an integral part of the Arab and Islamic world.

Notes

Literature

Trips

• Burckhardt, “Travels in Nubia” (L., 1819; appended translation of extracts from Arab historians)
• Light, "Travels in Egypt and Nubia"
• Belzoni, "Voyage en Egypte et en Nubie"
• Caillaux, "V. à Meroe" (1826)
• Senkowski, in "Annales des voyages" (XII)
• Rüppel, "Reisen in Nubien etc." (1829)
• Hoskins, "Travels in Ethiopia" (1833, important for archaeology)
• Norov, “Travel through Egypt and Nubia” (St. Petersburg, 1840; important for Christian archaeology)
• Lepsius, “Briefe aus Aegypten und Aethiopien” (B., 1852)
• Abeken, “Rapports sur les résultats de l’expédition prussienne dans la Haute N.” (“Revue archéol.”, III, 1)
• Combes, "Voyage en Egypte et en Nubie" (1846)
• Roberts, "Egypt and Nubia" (1846)
• Rafalovich, in “Note. Russian Geogr. General." (IV, 1)
• Tsenkovsky, “Izvestia” of the same general. (1850)
• Ampère, "La N." (“Revue de D. Mondes”, 1849)
• Hartmann, in "Ann. d. Voy." (1863) and many others. etc. b)

Story

• Quatremère, “Mém. s. la Nubie” (“M. s. l’Egypte” II, 1811)
• A. V. Rozov. "Christian Nubia. Sources for the history of Christianity in Nubia" (Kyiv, 1890)
• Revillout, “Mém. s. les Blemmyes" (Par., 1874-87) and articles in the "Revue Egyptologique"
• Lepsius, “Denkmäler aus Aegypten u. Aethiopien"
• Champollion, “Monuments de l’Eg. et de la Nubie" and many others. etc. c)

Language

• Lepsius, "Nubische Gram." (1880)
• Reinisch, "Die Nuba-Sprache" (1879, in the series "Sprachen NO Afrikas")
• Erman, “Die Aloa-Iuschriften” (“Aeg. Zeitscbr.”, 1881)
• Schäfer, "Nubische Ortsnamen" and others (ib., 1895)
• Brugsch, “Entzifferung d. Meroitischen Schriftdenkm." (ibid., 1887).

Links

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
• Travels to Ethiopia, Eastern Sudan and Nigritia was written by Pierre Trémaux in 1862-63. It features extensive descriptions and drawings of Nubia.

First, it’s worth telling a little about Xiaomi. Xiaomi is a manufacturer of smartphones and other mobile devices. The company does not have its own production lines, but develops smartphones and also develops its own Android-based firmware, called MIUI. Among the assembly factories is Foxconn, which produces smartphones for Apple. The first smartphone was released in 2011, and by the end of 2015, Xiaomi took 4th place in global smartphone shipments, behind only Samsung, Apple and Huawei (in that order from first to third place).

The secret of success can be identified in several main factors. Firstly, pricing policy. The smartphones were sold without any income for the company (earnings came from applications), and to make the price as affordable as possible, sales were carried out only through an online store (numerous sales points are now opening across China). Secondly, the smartphones used powerful hardware, high-quality components and materials, and were well assembled. Thirdly, many people liked the MIUI firmware, which replaces the “familiar Android”, and also the fact that smartphones are always updated to the latest software version.

Of course, such a success of a young company could not go unnoticed. Therefore, even large manufacturers decided to adopt this model, for which they even created subsidiary brands. ZTE became one of these companies, introducing its subsidiary brand Nubia. The sub-brand itself was introduced in 2012, and already at the beginning of 2013 the first smartphone was released: Nubia Z5. It was a high-end smartphone. Even at that time it had impressive characteristics: a 5-inch screen with high resolution FullHD, powerful Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 Pro processor with 4 cores 1500 MHz, 2 GB RAM and 32 GB internal memory. Even the current flagship Samsung Galaxy S4, which costs an order of magnitude more, was considered a competitor. According to Xiaomi's business model, brand promotion was carried out in a similar way. The smartphone has high-quality materials and a nice design, so it was warmly received by “reviewers” ​​and the average buyer. Given its specifications, it had an affordable price tag, and sales were carried out exclusively via the Internet.

Nubia smartphones have proprietary Nubia UI firmware. Of course, it is far from the MIUI firmware; rather, it is a proprietary interface and some add-ons to the Android OS. And updates happen rarely, which is frustrating. Some ZTE smartphones also receive this firmware.

Despite the fact that ZTE announced its entry into Russian market of its sub-brand Nubia, the model range in Russia is limited to several devices. In mid-2013, Nubia Z5 was officially released in Russia. The Nubia Z5S mini, which had already become an obsolete 2013 model, was also available. The company has official Russian representative offices in in social networks, but the Russian site does not work. You can find information about existing smartphones and upcoming new products on the community website.

Now we can only hope that the company will begin active operations in Russia in the near future. Unfortunately, the crisis is not conducive to this. But in the current lineup there are truly unique and interesting smartphones, for example, the current flagship Nubia Z9, which is practically devoid of side frames and has a rounded screen on the sides (more about it on the website at the link above). The 2016 flagship promises to be quite interesting, the release of which is expected in the near future.

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Sudan is big. Very big. Until the separation of South Sudan, it was the largest state in Africa. From the northern end to the southern end it was like from St. Petersburg to Sochi. Now I'm third. Became from Moscow to Crimea.

Nubia is Northern part Sudan and the very south of Egypt. Approximately from Khartoum to Aswan. And almost all the time of history Nubia was with Egypt common state. They had unity and struggle of opposites. The Egyptians are white, the Nubians are black, although, however, they are not blacks at all.

In ancient times, Nubia was known as the land of Kush. And many Sudanese even say that the Egyptian civilization was in fact not Egyptian, but Nubian. So or not, I don’t know, but at least they definitely took part in it. And some of the Egyptian pharaohs were, indeed, of Nubian origin. And they have pyramids in Sudanese Nubia, in Meroe, where the ancient Nubian capital was. Not as huge as in Egypt, but there are almost no tourists there.

The Nubians have their own language, not Arabic at all, but now they speak it less and less. The Nubians were also Christians before the Arabs. In Nubia, Christian kingdoms existed until the 16th century. In the Khartoum Museum, the entire first floor is occupied by their pharaonic antiquities, and the second floor by ancient icons. And their alphabet was almost like ours, also based on Greek. Very similar to ancient Slavic.

There are still many Christians in Sudan, but they are said to be mainly descendants of those who came from Egypt in later times. And then there are the South Sudanese Christians, and that's a whole different story. And they are just blacks. And now they are a separate country.

And in Johannesburg, on the other side of Africa, when my friend Mosibudi got her beautiful hair done - braided - her friends saw her and said: “What a Nubian princess you have become!” It turns out that Nubia is famous throughout Africa and is considered cool.

Well, now you know about Nubia, so I told you a little of what I know.

In the photo above are Nubians on camels. There are few tourists here, but there are some. They ride them for money, like in Egypt.

Mountains. Looks like big ruined pyramids

Pyramids at Meroe, general view.

Restored pyramid.

Another pyramid.

Ancient Nubian manuscript (from Wikipedia).

On the pond.

Like wild watermelons. I broke one and found it white and bitter inside.

The remaining photos show various Nubian antiquities that were seen on the road between Meroe and Khartoum. Which is called - I don’t know. It is interesting, however, that there are not only ancient Egyptian buildings, but also quite antique ones. It turns out that they also had a Hellenistic period.

historical area in the valley between the 1st and 5th cataracts of the Nile on the territory of modern Egypt and Sudan, as well as the one that existed here in the 7th-14th centuries. Christian state of the Nubians with its capital in Dongola Old. By the end of the 14th century. inhabited by Arab tribes and Islamized.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

NUBIA

Kash, Kush - among the ancient Egyptians, Nile Ethiopia - among ancient authors) - ist. region. It is located approximately between the 1st and 6th cataracts of the Nile and somewhat further to the south and east along the White and Blue Nile, between the Red Sea and the Libyan Desert. The name N., dating back to the 10th century. n. e., probably comes from someone who lived in the 3rd century. n. e. to the east bank of the Nile south of the 1st threshold of the Nobat tribe. To the indigenous population of the territory. N. - related to the ancient Egyptians, Hamitic. tribes, from mid. 2nd millennium BC e. Negroid elements infiltrated from the South were mixed in. In the era Ancient kingdom Egypt The pharaohs sent to the territory. N. bargaining caravans and predatory expeditions for slaves, cattle, gold, ebony, ivory, etc. and by the 15th century. BC e. captured it up to the 4th threshold. N. was governed by a governor, the so-called. the royal son of Kush. Egyptian influence contributed to the spread of Egypt. culture and accelerated the collapse of primitive communal relations. In the 11th century BC e. achieved independence. Subsequently, on her territory. The Napata kingdom arose (see Napata). By the end of the 6th century. BC e. the capital of this kingdom was moved to Meroe (see Meroe). In the 4th century. n. e. Means. part of the country was captured by the Aksumite king Ezana. From the 6th century n. e. Christianity spread to N. In the 6th-8th centuries. Two kingdoms were formed - Mukurra (in the North) and Aloa (in the South). In 652 it was attacked by the Arabs. Recurring since the 13th century. Mamluk raids and the settlement of Arabs contributed to the spread of Islam in Nizhny Novgorod, which forced out by the beginning. 16th century Christianity. In the 16th century on the territory N. the state of Fung arose. In 1821 part of it was captured by Egypt. Terr. North N. up to the 2nd threshold is now part of the UAR, the rest of the districts belong to Sudan. In connection with the construction of the Aswan Dam, many monuments of Ancient Egypt - the Abu Simbel Temple and others - were flooded. To study and save them, the UNESCO International was created in 1960. action committee with an Expert Advisory Board. The most valuable monuments are transferred to a flood-free zone (1966). Lit.: Katsnelson I. S., Problems historical development ancient Nubia, "VDI", 1948, No. 2; his, Some features of the state system of Nubia in the VI-IV centuries. BC e.. International XXV Congress of Orientalists. Reports of the USSR delegation, M., 1960; his, Nubia under Egyptian rule, "VMGU", 1948, No. 6; his, Slavery in Kush, "VDI", 1964, No. 2; Ancient Nubia. The results of the archaeological work. expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences in the United Arab Republic. 1961-1962, under general editorship. B. B. Piotrovsky, M.-L., 1964; S?ve-S?derbergh T., ?gypten und Nubien, Lund, 1941; Arkell A. J., A history of the Sudan from the earliest times to 1821, L., 1961; magazine "Kush", Khartum, since 1953. I. S. Katsnelson. Moscow. -***-***-***- Nubia before the 13th century