CONCEPT AND FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL CONFLICT Social conflict is a conflict of large social groups that arose on the basis of social contradiction. IN modern world there is an aggravation and increase in the number of social contradictions, which leads to an increase in

Something about identification

• Tashfel builds all cognitive processes in a chain in which identification precedes differentiation.
• In reality, people have more choices than full identification with one of the ethnic communities. An individual can simultaneously identify himself with two relevant groups. Not only people from mixed marriages, but also people living in a multi-ethnic society can have such an identity. For them, “nationality for oneself” can be denoted not in one word, but descriptively: “closer to Russian nationality”, “rather between Russians and Ukrainians” (from the answers of Polesie residents to the question about their nationality).

Escalation of the conflict

Conflict- a difficult situation, which has several stages.

Conflict is prone to self-expansion. Additional reasons for its deepening arise all the time. Some transformations occur:

Ø From soft to hard actions - from conversations to active actions.

Ø From smaller to larger – new objects of dispute appear.

Ø From particular to general – “You are all like that!”

Ø At first there is a desire for results, but gradually everything comes down to the desire to defeat the enemy, even to the point of causing damage to him.

Ø From the participation of a few, to an increase in the ranks - an increase in the number of participants in the conflict up to a massive one.

(The end of the 60s and the beginning of the 70s was a time of great social conflicts in which students were drawn, both in France and in the USA)

Conflict can be resolved (solving the underlying problem) or it can be resolved (removing one of the parties).

MODELS of conflict escalation

1. Aggressor-victim model.

It works for the parties to the conflict, but each side feels like a victim.

The aggressor attacks, the victim defends himself, the aggressor increases the pressure….etc. – either settlement or resolution.

This type of action is typical for political conflicts. The model is not natural enough to provide a complete explanation. It is difficult to distinguish the aggressor from the victim.

2. Spiral model.

The movement of the conflict occurs in a spiral: Peak - Calm - New round.

It can also be represented linearly in the form of waves.

Popular with those who view conflict escalation as a vicious circle of action and reaction.

Hostile actions of one side cause fear, frustration, anger, etc. in the other side -> retaliatory actions.

This model is not as one-sided as the previous one, but it is not much better.

3. Model of structural changes.

The previous two models cannot explain why the conflict in a situation of fading does not die out at all, why a new wave is formed.

How do the parties change psychologically during a conflict?

The spiral model (sociological) studies only temporary states of people in conflict - emotions and anger.

Basic conflict changes:

v Group cohesion is enhanced

v Leaders change (more aggressive)

v Social identity becomes brighter and more positive

v Changes in the cognitive sphere.

Cognitive processes and real MGOs are in a state of circular mutual influence. How do cognitive processes change?

Ø Categorization à group members are perceived to be more similar than they actually are. à deindividuation of in-group and out-group members! This effect works in such a way that it facilitates the decision to take aggressive actions. Deindividuation has become easier with the advent of new technologies, where you don't have to personally interact with members of another group that you kill. à increasing the possibility of aggression towards the group due to the lack of direct interaction.

Experiment: Volleyball players, 2 teams. 1- in suits, 2- who is wearing what. Group 1 was more aggressive.

The deindividualized group is more aggressive, because she perceives herself as a group, and knows that others also perceive her as a group. à diffusion of responsibility.

D. Campbell - tested on African tribes - the more identical elements in the appearance, the more aggressive the tribe.

Ø Illusory correlation - two classes of events are perceived as related, although there is either no connection between them, or the connection is insignificant. Many negative stereotypes are based on this. It manifests itself in stereotypes about minority groups among the majority, with rare interaction and the presence of clear differences among the former.

Ø Each group in a situation of conflict strives to differentiate itself from another group and does everything not to compare them once again. Each country tried to remain within its own system of views.

Ø The parties are looking for “scapegoats”, which can always be found using the mechanism of social causal attribution (attribution of responsibility). People constantly have the desire to look for someone responsible for an event. Very often they become actual minority groups. If he is not found, some plausible minority (for example, enemy intelligence agents). If they don’t find these, they come up with a fantastic minority (witches in the Middle Ages, after the expulsion of the Jews for spreading the plague). That. all this is a specific type of attribution - conspiracy attribution, giving simple explanations for any complex phenomena. The consequences for scapegoats are expulsion or death. We can talk about dehumanizing enemies. Delegitimization By B. Talya . Those. moving beyond the boundaries of the human race and human laws. This makes destruction actions easier!!!

That. there is some fear of minority groups. Why does this fear of weak minority groups arise?

S. Moscovici put forward the concept of conspiratorial thinking: Any minority, with its lifestyle, views, religion, etc., violates the norms of the majority. From the point of view of the majority, the minority finds itself in a certain privileged position and can do whatever they want. à they have some mysterious power associated with the power of evil à conspiratorial attributions, in which fantastic attributions are manifested. Members of the majority group exhibit feelings of weakness. Hatred and contempt for minority groups is complemented by envy.

Manifests itself in situations of crises and conflicts. In a normal and stable situation, most people do not need to look for someone to blame. Then they leave the conspiracy attribution and don't use it.

Moscovici distinguishes right and left, in the political sense of the word, attributions. Right - the person himself is responsible for everything that happens to him (attribution of responsibility). Left - the causes of all misfortunes in the conditions created by society; the system is to blame! The left is especially characteristic of minority groups themselves. Helps protect self-esteem, but at the same time gives a feeling of lack of control over one’s life, which increases selfishness, aggressiveness and anxiety.

Initially, the word “stereotype” (hard imprint) appeared in the printing industry to designate a printing form - a copy from a printing press.

In each case, specific personal qualities were proposed as reasons - stereotypical, individual and anti-stereotypical for the “typical American” and the “typical Soviet man", as well as external circumstances.

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1. Psigns and types of conflict escalation

Conflict escalation (from the Latin Scala - “ladder”) is understood as the development of a conflict that progresses over time, an escalation of confrontation, in which the subsequent destructive effects of opponents on each other are more intense than the previous ones. The escalation of a conflict represents that part of it that begins with an incident and ends with a weakening of the struggle, the transition to the end of the conflict.

The escalation of the conflict is characterized by the following signs:

1. Narrowing of the cognitive sphere in behavior and activity. In the process of escalation there is a transition to more primitive forms of display.

2. Displacement of adequate perception of another by the image of the enemy. The image of the enemy as a holistic idea of ​​the opponent, which integrates distorted and illusory features, begins to form during the latent period of the conflict as a result of perception determined by negative assessments. As long as there is no counteraction, as long as the threat is not implemented, the image of the enemy is indirect. It can be compared to weakly developed photographs, where the image is fuzzy and pale. In the process of escalation, the image of the enemy appears more and more clearly and gradually displaces the objective image. About the image of the enemy who dominates the conflict situation, indicating mistrust; placing blame on the enemy; negative expectation; identification with evil; the “zero-sum” view (“whatever benefits the enemy harms us,” and vice versa); deindividuation (“anyone who belongs to a given group is automatically our enemy”); refusal of condolences.

The image of the enemy is reinforced by: growth negative emotions; expectations of destructive actions from the other side; negative stereotypes and attitudes; the seriousness of the object of the conflict for the person (group); the duration of the conflict.

3. Increase in emotional stress. Arises as a reaction to an increase in the threat of possible damage; decreased controllability of the opposite side; inability to realize your interests to the desired extent in a short time; opponent's resistance.

4. Transition from arguments to claims and personal attacks. When people's opinions collide, people usually try to argue for them. Others, assessing a person’s position, thereby indirectly assess her ability to argue. A person usually adds significant personal coloring to the fruits of his intellect. Therefore, criticism of the results of his intellectual activity can be perceived as a negative assessment of him as a person. In this case, criticism is perceived as a threat to the person’s self-esteem, and attempts to protect oneself lead to a shift in the subject of the conflict to the personal plane.

5. The growth of the hierarchical rank of interests that are violated and protected, and their polarization. More intense action affects the other party's more important interests. Therefore, the escalation of the conflict can be considered as a process of deepening contradictions, i.e. as a process of growth of the hierarchical rank of interests, are violated. In the process of escalation, the interests of opponents seem to be drawn into opposite poles. If in a pre-conflict situation they could somehow coexist, then after the escalation of the conflict, the existence of some is possible only by ignoring the interests of the other side.

6. Use of violence. A characteristic sign of conflict escalation is the use of the last argument - violence. Many violent acts are motivated by revenge. Aggression is associated with the desire for some kind of internal compensation (for lost prestige, decreased self-esteem, etc.), compensation for damage. Actions in conflict may be driven by a desire for retribution for damage.

7. The loss of the original subject of disagreement lies in the fact that the confrontation that began through the disputed object develops into a more global clash, during which the original subject of the conflict no longer plays a major role. The conflict becomes independent of the reasons that caused it, and continues after they have become insignificant.

8. Expanding the boundaries of the conflict. The conflict is generalized, i.e. transition to deeper contradictions, the emergence of many different points of contact. The conflict extends to large territory. There is an expansion of its temporal and spatial boundaries.

9. Increasing the number of participants. This can occur in the process of conflict escalation through the involvement of all more participants. The transformation of interpersonal conflict into intergroup conflict, a quantitative increase and change in the structure of groups participating in the confrontation, changes the nature of the conflict, expanding the range of means used in it.

As the conflict intensifies, regression of the conscious sphere of the psyche occurs. This process is wave-like in nature, based on the unconscious and subconscious levels of mental activity. It does not develop chaotically, but gradually, according to the ontogenesis of the psyche, but in the opposite direction).

The first two stages reflect the development of the pre-conflict situation. The importance of one’s own desires and arguments grows. There is a fear that the ground for joint decision Problems. Mental tension is growing. Measures taken by one of the parties to change the opponent’s position are understood by the opposite party as a signal for escalation. The third stage is the actual beginning of escalation. All expectations are focused on actions, replacing futile discussions. However, the expectations of the participants are paradoxical: both sides hope to use force and rigidity to force a change in the opponent’s position, while no one is ready to voluntarily give in. A mature view of reality is sacrificed in favor of a simplistic approach that is easier to sustain emotionally. The real issues of the conflict lose importance while the face of the enemy becomes the center of attention.

Age levels of emotional and social-cognitive functioning of the human psyche (1 - beginning of the latent phase, 2 - latent phase, 3 - demonstrative phase, 4 - aggressive phase, 5 - battle phase)

At the fourth stage of functioning, the psyche regresses to approximately the level corresponding to the age of 6-8 years. A person still has an image of another, but he is no longer ready to reckon with the thoughts, feelings and state of this other. In the emotional sphere, a black and white approach begins to dominate, that is, everything that is “not me” or “not us” is bad, and therefore rejected.

At the fifth stage of escalation, clear signs of progressive regression appear in the form of an absolutization of a negative assessment of the opponent and a positive assessment of oneself. Sacred values, beliefs and the highest moral obligations are at stake. Force and violence take on an impersonal form, the perception of the opposite side freezes in the solid image of the enemy. The enemy is devalued to the status of a thing and deprived of human traits. However, these same people are able to function normally within their group. Therefore, it is difficult for an inexperienced observer to perceive the deeply regressed perceptions of others and to take measures to resolve the conflict.

Regression is not inevitable for any person at any time. difficult situation social interaction. A lot depends on upbringing, on the assimilation of moral norms and everything that is called the social experience of constructive interaction.

The external plan of conflict escalation can be described using the theory of symmetric schismogenesis (G. Bateson). Schismogenesis change individual behavior, occurring as a result of the accumulation of experience of interaction between individuals. There are 2 variants of schismogenesis:

1. additional interaction is built on the principle of complementary actions (perseverance of the first opponent, compliance of the second or offensive actions and defense);

2. symmetrical schismogenesis develops when subjects use the same behavioral models (the second responds to the action of the first opponent with an action of the same direction, but more intense).

The escalation of the conflict occurs precisely according to option 2.

During this stage, transformations occur, which conflictologists also call signs of conflict escalation. Narrowing of the cognitive sphere in behavior and activity (distortion of a conflict situation). As the conflict intensifies, regression of the conscious part of the psyche occurs.

2. Piramid of negative conflict escalation

Rice. 1. Pyramid of negative conflict escalation and stages of constructive resolution.

To resolve the conflict, it is necessary to go back through the pyramid, which can end either with interests (the first option), or with worldviews and root problems (the second option, the most complete and effective).

The first option consists of seven stages:

1. Stop hostile actions towards yourself or others.

2. Regulate the emotional tone of communication with yourself or others.

3. Regulate relationships with yourself or others.

4. Agree on the principles and rules for the use of certain means by which positions are translated into practice.

5. Consider many possible positions at once, i.e. move from individual items to choosing from a wide range of design options.

6. Recognize the interests of others and become aware of your own interests. Share interests, positions and means of achieving them. Identify identified interests and recognize those that are legitimate and justified.

7. Jointly find options and methods of action that would simultaneously meet your interests and the interests of your opponent.

The second option includes three more steps:

A critical analysis of secondary beliefs is carried out - one's own and other people's.

A critical analysis of the primary beliefs of one's own and other people is carried out.

The root real (objective) and subjective problems are identified and ways to solve them are developed.

Leaving a conflict unattended is like leaving smoldering coals in an empty house: a fire, of course, may not happen, but if it does... escalation, negative spiral conflict

In general, the analogy between a conflict and a fire is deeper: 1) both are easier to prevent than to extinguish; 2) in both cases, the time factor can become decisive, because both conflict and fire are terrible in their growth. These same two signs are related to conflict and illness.

Escalation can also be explained by the fact that a participant in the conflict seeks support from others and recruits supporters. They especially try to attract the leader to their side.

As the conflict grows (escalates), things get complicated. The original conflict acquires new ones, reflecting the interests of the new participants and the contradictions between them. At the same time, emotions grow like a snowball.

All this convinces us that, having received information about the conflict, the leader must act and take measures without waiting for the conflict to escalate.

Moreover, inaction, a position of non-interference, is regarded in the team as indifference, or even cowardice. Both do not contribute to the authority of the leader.

3. WITHspiral model of conflict escalation

Rubin and co-authors note that if in a conflict situation the actions of the defending party do not cause an escalation in the behavior of the aggressor, then we have an aggressive-defensive model of conflict. However, if the defender's actions cause the aggressor's behavior to escalate, the aggressor-defender sequence becomes an episode of a larger conflict spiral.

The spiral model of conflict escalation demonstrates that escalation is the result of actions and reactions that form a vicious circle. Offensive tactics used by the first party cause similar behavior by the other party. This response, in turn, again provokes the first party to new actions, which closes the circle and takes the conflict to a new stage. Each side has a growing list of the other's sins, and each new discontent increases the feeling of crisis. Each of us reacts to provocation at its own level, and the spiral of conflict continues to grow.

Strong escalation is preceded by two circumstances: a high degree of perceived divergence of interests and low stability. Thus, the stronger the subjective perception of divergence of interests, the greater the severity of tactics to counter an opponent seems acceptable. In addition, sources of stability can be identified:

The presence of ties of belonging to the same group, friendship or mutual dependence between the parties to the interaction (options: common group membership or a situation of mutual dependence);

The existence of a third party that is ready to intervene as a mediator, peacemaker;

Lack of excitement or tension in previous communication;

Involvement in activities that are outside the boundaries of a given system of relationships;

Fear on one or both sides of escalation.

Reasons for stopping escalation:

One of the sides managed to gain the upper hand in the confrontation;

The first side can take advantage of a one-sided advantage over the second and end the conflict in its favor;

One of the parties, for some reason, during the conflict decides to voluntarily concede, no longer considering continued escalation an acceptable option for itself;

One of the parties, for some reason, during a conflict decides to withdraw from it and begin to use an avoidance strategy, no longer considering continued escalation an acceptable option for itself;

There is a dead point in the confrontation.

The stage of the balance of power or the dead point (deadlock) of the conflict.

Some authors (A.G. Zdravomyslov, S.V. Sokolov) identify the stage of impasse: equilibrium caused by the ineffectiveness of the steps taken and the awareness of a Pyrrhic victory, paralysis of actions, search for new approaches and change of leaders, reassessment of one’s own interests, fading of confrontation, truce, beginning negotiations A dead point is a stop in the process of collision and resistance to collision. Reasons for the emergence of a dead point in the conflict:

Failure of confrontation tactics;

Depletion of necessary resources (energy, money, time);

Loss of social support;

Unacceptable costs.

Initially, at this stage, nothing happens objectively, but at the same time the attitude of one of the parties to what is happening changes. After some time, both sides come to the unfortunate conclusion that dominance is impossible, but, nevertheless, there is still no desire to give up victory by withdrawing themselves, or to concede. But the most important consequence of the onset of this stage is the understanding of at least one of the parties that the enemy is an independent partner with whom they will have to negotiate, and not just an enemy. And you will have to negotiate and interact with this partner, which becomes the first step towards the negotiation process, towards a way out of the conflict.

And in conclusion, let's talk about the limitations that the dynamic model of describing conflict has. The most important problem with phase theories of conflict is that they may appear too simple; phase analysis may exaggerate the role of logical step-by-step sequencing in the development of conflict. According to A. Rapoport, it is impossible to fit all conflicts under a single universal scheme. There are conflicts such as fights, when opponents are divided by irreconcilable differences and they only count on victory; there are conflicts such as debates, where a dispute is possible, maneuvers are possible, but in principle both sides can count on a compromise; there are conflicts like games where the parties operate within the same rules, so they never end.

Thus, we can state the fact that this scheme provides an ideal model for the development of conflict interaction, while reality provides us with many examples of phase shifts, circulation, shortened struggle, fading and new renewal of confrontation, etc.

Zconclusion

So, conflict is a phenomenon with complex structure and dynamics, and therefore the tactics for resolving it should differ depending on the stage, period and their duration.

Escalation (from Latin scala - ladder) is a sharp intensification of the opponents' struggle.

Conflict escalation is the development of a conflict progressing over time, an aggravation of confrontation, in which the subsequent destructive effects of opponents on each other are higher in intensity than the previous ones.

Conflict escalation is the second phase of conflict development, when open conflict interaction begins, the conflict develops over time, and confrontation intensifies, in which the subsequent destructive effects of opponents on each other are higher in intensity than the previous ones.

Escalation can be continuous with an ever-increasing degree of tension in relations and the strength of blows exchanged between conflictants; and wave-like, when the tension in relations either intensifies or subsides, periods of active confrontation are replaced by calm, temporary improvements in relations.

Escalation can also be steep, quickly rising to extreme point sharp manifestations of hostility; and sluggish, slowly flaring up, or even remaining at the same level for a long time. In the latter case, we can talk about a chronic, protracted conflict.

WITHsqueaksources used

1. Antsupov A.Ya., Shipilov A.I. Conflictology. Textbook for universities. -- 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2004. - 591 p.

2. Vishnevskaya A.V. Conflictology. Lecture course. - M.: UNITY, 2003. - 124 p.

3. Mirimanova M.S. Conflictology. - M.: Academy, 2003. - 320 p.

4. Rubin J., Pruit D., Kim Hye Sung. Social conflict: escalation, deadlock, resolution. - St. Petersburg: Prime-Eurosign, 2001. - 352 p.

5. Sheinov V.P. Conflicts in our lives and their resolution. - Minsk: Amalfeya, 1997. - 277 p.

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18. Dynamics of conflict. Causes and forms of conflict escalation.

Conflict escalation (from the Latin scala - ladder) is understood as the development of a conflict progressing over time, the aggravation of confrontation, in which the subsequent destructive effects of opponents on each other are higher in intensity than the previous ones. The escalation of a conflict represents that part of it that begins with an incident and ends with a weakening of the struggle, the transition to the end of the conflict. The following signs are characteristic of conflict escalation:

Narrowing of the cognitive sphere in behavior and activity. Note that during the escalation there is a transition to more primitive forms of reflection.

Replacement of adequate perception of another by the image of an enemy. The image of the enemy as a holistic idea of ​​the opponent, integrating distorted and illusory features, begins to form during the latent period of the conflict as a result of perception determined by negative assessments. As long as there is no counteraction, as long as the threats are not implemented, the image of the enemy is focal in nature. It can be compared to a weakly developed photograph, where the image is fuzzy and pale. During the escalation, the image of the enemy appears more and more expressively and gradually displaces the objective image. The fact that the image of the enemy becomes dominant in the information model of a conflict situation is evidenced by: distrust (everything that comes from the enemy is either bad or, if reasonable, pursues dishonest goals).

Placing blame on the enemy (the enemy is responsible for all problems that arise and is to blame for everything).

Negative expectation (everything the enemy does, he does with the sole purpose of harming us).

Identification with evil (the enemy embodies the opposite of what I am and what I strive for, he wants to destroy what I value, and therefore must be destroyed himself).

The “zero-sum” view (what benefits the enemy harms us, and vice versa).

Deindividuation (anyone who belongs to a given group is automatically our enemy).

Refusal of sympathy (we have nothing in common with our enemy, no information can induce us to show humane feelings towards him, it is dangerous and unwise to be guided by ethical criteria in relation to the enemy).

The consolidation of the image of the enemy is facilitated by an increase in negative emotions, the expectation of destructive actions of the other side, negative stereotypes and attitudes, the significance of the object of the conflict for the individual (group), and the duration of the conflict.

Increased emotional tension. It arises as a reaction to the growing threat of possible damage, a decrease in the controllability of the opposite party, the inability to realize one’s interests to the desired extent in a short time, and resistance from the opponent.

Moving from arguments to claims and personal attacks. When people's opinions collide, they usually try to justify them. When others evaluate a person’s position, they indirectly evaluate his ability to reason.

A person usually attaches a significant personal coloring to the fruits of his intellect. Therefore, criticism of the results of his intellectual activity can be perceived as a negative assessment of him as a person. In this case, criticism is perceived as a threat to a person’s self-esteem, and attempts to protect oneself lead to a shift in the subject of the conflict to the personal plane. The growth of the hierarchical rank of violated and protected interests and their polarization. More intense action affects the other party's more important interests.

Therefore, the escalation of a conflict can be considered as a process of deepening contradictions, that is, as a process of growth in the hierarchical rank of violated interests. During escalation, the interests of opponents seem to be drawn into opposite poles. If in a pre-conflict situation they could somehow coexist, then when the conflict escalates, the existence of some is possible only by ignoring the interests of the other side.

Expanding the boundaries of the conflict. There is a generalization of the conflict, that is, a transition to deeper contradictions, the emergence of many different points of collision. The conflict is spreading over wider areas. There is an expansion of its temporal and spatial boundaries.

Increase in the number of participants. During the escalation of the conflict, the “enlargement” of the warring entities may occur by attracting an increasing number of participants. The transformation of interpersonal conflict into intergroup conflict, the numerical increase and change in the structures of rival groups changes the nature of the conflict, expanding the range of means used in it.

The increase in the intensity of the conflict, the expansion of its field and scale is an essential sign of the development of the conflict and characterizes its variables. Any conflict can be more or less intense. Intensity is basically a quantitative measure of the activity of the opposing sides. It is measured by the frequency of their clashes, the use of various means of struggle, including violent ones, and the level of severity of the struggle.

The intensity of the confrontation increases the more, the higher the importance for the parties of the subject of the contradiction and the more united the opposing subjects are around the chosen goals of the struggle. The intensity of the conflict naturally decreases at the stage of its attenuation and as it is resolved. On the contrary, it increases if the conflict is suppressed or resolved through mutual destruction of the parties.

Conflict escalation (from the Latin scala - ladder) is understood as the development of a conflict progressing over time, the aggravation of confrontation, in which the subsequent destructive effects of opponents on each other are higher in intensity than the previous ones. The escalation of a conflict represents that part of it that begins with an incident and ends with a weakening of the struggle, the transition to the end of the conflict.

The escalation of the conflict is characterized by the following signs.

Narrowing of the cognitive sphere in behavior and activity. Below we will look in more detail at the psychological mechanism of escalation. Now let us note that during the escalation there is a transition to more primitive forms of reflection.

Replacement of adequate perception of another by the image of an enemy. The image of the enemy as a holistic idea of ​​the opponent, integrating distorted and illusory features, begins to form during the latent period of the conflict as a result of perception determined negative assessments. As long as there is no counteraction, as long as the threats are not implemented, the image of the enemy is focal in nature. It can be compared to a weakly developed photograph, where the image is fuzzy and pale. During the escalation, the image of the enemy appears more and more expressively and gradually displaces the objective image. The fact that the image of the enemy becomes dominant in the information model of a conflict situation is evidenced by:

mistrust (everything that comes from the enemy is either bad or, if reasonable, pursues dishonest goals);

placing blame on the enemy (the enemy is responsible for all problems that arise and is to blame for everything); negative expectation (everything the enemy does, he does with the sole purpose of harming us);

identification with evil (the enemy embodies the opposite of what I am and what I strive for, he wants to destroy what I value and therefore must be destroyed himself);

the “zero-sum” view (whatever benefits the enemy harms us, and vice versa);

deindividuation (anyone who belongs to a given group is automatically our enemy);

refusal of sympathy (we have nothing in common with our enemy, no information can induce us to show humane feelings towards him, being guided by ethical criteria in relation to the enemy is dangerous and unwise).

The consolidation of the image of the enemy is facilitated by: an increase in negative emotions; anticipation of destructive actions of the other side; negative stereotypes and attitudes; the significance of the object of conflict for the individual (group); duration of the conflict.

Increased emotional tension. Arises as a reaction to an increase in the threat of possible damage; decreased controllability of the opposite side; inability to realize your interests to the desired extent in a short time; opponent's resistance.

Moving from arguments to claims and personal attacks. When people's opinions collide, they usually try to justify them. People around, assessing a person’s position. his ability to reason is also indirectly assessed. A person usually attaches a significant personal touch to the fruits of his intellect. Therefore, criticism of the results of his intellectual activity can be perceived as a negative assessment of him as a person. In this case, criticism is perceived as a threat to a person’s self-esteem, and attempts to protect oneself lead to a shift in the subject of the conflict to the personal plane.

The growth of the hierarchical rank of violated and protected interests and their polarization. More intense action affects the other party's more important interests. Therefore, conflict escalation can be considered as a process of deepening contradictions, that is, as a process of growth in the hierarchical rank of violated interests. During escalation, the interests of opponents seem to be drawn into opposite poles. If in a pre-conflict situation they could somehow coexist, then when the conflict escalates, the existence of some is possible only by ignoring the interests of the other side.

Use of violence. A distinctive sign of conflict escalation is the introduction of the last argument into the “battle” - violence.

According to S. Kudryavtsev, many violent actions are caused by revenge. Research on aggression shows that it is largely associated with some kind of internal compensation (lost prestige, decreased self-esteem, etc.), compensation for damage. Actions in conflict can be caused by the desire for retribution for damage caused to the “I”.

Physical violence and aggression in general are provoked not only by an already realized threat, but also by a potential threat. Therefore, the intensification of physical violence in a conflict is associated with an increase in the intensity of mutual actions caused by inadequate retribution for the destruction of the “I”.

Losing the original point of contention lies in the fact that the confrontation that began over a disputed object develops into a more global clash, during which the original subject of the conflict no longer plays a major role. The conflict becomes independent of the causes that caused it and continues after they have become insignificant (M. Deutsch).

Expanding the boundaries of the conflict. There is a generalization of the conflict, that is, a transition to deeper contradictions, the emergence of many different points of collision. The conflict is spreading over wider areas. There is an expansion of its temporal and spatial boundaries.

Increase in the number of participants. During the escalation of the conflict, there may be an “enlargement” of the warring entities by attracting more and more participants. The transformation of interpersonal conflict into intergroup conflict, the numerical increase and change in the structures of rival groups changes the nature of the conflict, expanding the range of means used in it.

The external plan for conflict escalation can be described using theory of “symmetrical schismogenesis”(G. Bateson). Schismogenesis is a change in individual behavior that occurs as a result of the accumulation of experience of interaction between individuals. There are two variants of schismogenesis - additional and symmetrical. Complementary occurs in cases where interaction is built on the basis of complementary actions, for example, the persistence of one subject and the compliance of another. In the course of interaction, increasing persistence of one subject can lead to increasing compliance of the other, and vice versa, and so on until the destruction of the relationship. Symmetrical schismogenesis develops when subjects use the same behavioral patterns. The other responds to the behavior of the subject with behavior of the same direction, but more intense, etc. The result will also be the destruction of relationships.

Although G. Bateson does not directly connect symmetrical schismogenesis with the development of the conflict, it is obvious that the escalation of the struggle occurs precisely according to this principle. From the recognition of the external similarity of the parties and the “symmetry” of the development of interaction, it does not follow that the parties in the process of struggle pursue the same goals. One side may strive to change the existing balance of positions and adhere to an offensive strategy; the other is to try to maintain the status quo and adhere entirely to a defensive strategy. Obviously, more intense offensive actions are more likely to generate intense defensive actions, and vice versa.

Speaking about the internal springs of conflict escalation, it is necessary to turn to features of the evolution of the functioning of the psyche in conditions of danger and threat. The theory of evolutionary epistemology (G. Vollmer, K. Lorenz) states that a person who does not have special organs that contribute to survival during attack or defense (fangs, paws, hooves, etc.) survived thanks to brain abilities that allow better adaptation to the conditions environment. The history of brain development stretches over hundreds of millions of years. A longitudinal section of the human brain along the midline reveals the presence of very ancient

and young parts, the combined activity of which determines the way of perceiving the world and also controls human behavior. Archaic mechanisms of aggressive and defensive actions in relation to the source of threat in the form of unique programs are embedded in the deep layers of the diencephalon (it was formed hundreds of millions of years ago). They were necessary to ensure survival in the first, biological phase of evolution.

Since the beginning of human cultural evolution, in contrast to aggressive and defensive actions, an interest in the unknown has developed. The assessment of the unknown as threatening or interesting is a product of the interaction of archaic reactions of the diencephalon and relatively recently acquired reactions of the telencephalon (formed in the last 3-4 million years). If spontaneous fears dominate, then the signals of the diencephalon will subjugate and displace the physiologically weaker processes of the telencephalon. Therefore, empathy, tolerance, compromising behavior and other positive social gains may not be realized due to feelings of insecurity, social pressure, fear and stress of all kinds that arise during a threat.

As the conflict intensifies, regression of the conscious sphere of the psyche occurs. This process is of an avalanche nature, based on the unconscious and subconscious levels of mental activity. It develops not chaotically, but gradually, reproducing the ontogenesis of the psyche, but in the opposite direction (Fig. 2).

The first two stages reflect the development of the pre-conflict situation. The importance of one’s own desires and arguments grows. There is a fear that the basis for a joint solution to the problem will be lost. Mental tension is growing. Measures taken by one side to change the opponent's position are understood by the opposite side as a signal for escalation.

The third stage is the actual beginning of escalation. All hopes are focused on action, replacing fruitless discussions. However, the expectations of the participants are paradoxical: both sides hope to force a change in the opponent’s position through pressure and firmness, while no one is ready to voluntarily give in. A mature, complex view of reality is sacrificed in favor of a simplified approach that is easier to sustain emotionally. The actual problems of the conflict lose significance, while the personality of the enemy becomes the center of attention.

Rice. 2. Correspondence of the stages of conflict escalation to the levels of functioning of the human psyche. Age levels of emotional and social-cognitive functioning of the human psyche

At the fourth stage, mental functioning regresses to approximately the level corresponding to the age of 6-8 years. A person still has an image of the “other”, but he is no longer ready to take into account the thoughts, feelings and position of this “other”. In the emotional sphere, a black and white approach begins to dominate, i.e., everything that is “not me” or “not us” is bad and therefore rejected.

At the fifth stage of escalation, clear signs of progressive regression appear in the form of absoluteization of the negative assessment of the opponent and the positive assessment of oneself. “Sacred values,” beliefs, and the highest moral obligations are at stake. Force and violence take on impersonal forms, the perception of the opposite side freezes in the rigid image of the enemy. The enemy is devalued to the status of a “thing” and deprived of human traits. However, these same people are able to function normally within their group. This makes it difficult for the inexperienced observer to take their deeply regressed perceptions of others into account when taking steps to resolve the conflict.

The regression described above is not inevitable for any person in any difficult situation of social interaction. A lot depends on upbringing, on the assimilation of moral standards and everything that is called the social experience of constructive interaction.