14. PRINCIPLES OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY The principle of determinism. This principle means that the psyche is determined by living conditions and changes with changes in lifestyle. If we talk about the psyche of animals, it is believed that its development is determined by natural

Chapter II METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY Methodology and methodology Science is, first of all, research. Therefore, the characteristics of science are not limited to defining its subject; it also includes a definition of its method. Methods, i.e. ways of knowing, are the ways by which

Methods of psychology Psychology, like every science, uses a whole system of various private methods, or techniques. The main research methods in psychology, as in a number of other sciences, are observation and experiment. Each of these common methods scientific

METHODS OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY Being a branch of psychological science, pedagogical psychology has two main methods for obtaining a psychological fact that can be subjected to scientific analysis - observation and experiment. However

1.2. Methods of psychology The concept of method. The term "method" has at least two meanings.1. Method as a methodology is a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, an initial, fundamental position as an approach to

The presence of sufficiently objective, accurate and reliable methods is one of the main conditions for the development of every science.

The role of the method of science is connected with the fact that the essence of the process being studied does not coincide with the manifestations in which it appears; special techniques are needed that allow one to penetrate beyond the phenomena accessible to the direct observer into those internal laws that constitute the essence of the process being studied. This path from phenomenon to essence, using a number of objective research techniques, is characteristic of truly scientific research.

What are the methods used by psychology?

There was a long period when psychology was defined as the science of the subjective world of man; The definition of the content of science also corresponded to the set of its methods. According to the idealistic concept, which isolated the psyche from all other phenomena of nature and society, the subject of psychological science was the study of subjective states of consciousness. These processes of consciousness differed, according to idealist psychologists, from other processes of objective reality in that the phenomenon coincided with the essence: those forms of consciousness that a person could observe on himself (clarity or obscurity of consciousness, the experience of freedom of a volitional act, etc. ), were considered by these psychologists as the main properties of the spirit or as the essence of subjective mental processes. This coincidence of phenomena with essence, in their opinion, constituted the basis of psychology and determined its method, i.e., the main and only one was considered to be a subjective description of the phenomena of consciousness, obtained in the process of introspection (introspection). The recognition of introspection as the main method of psychology not only separated psychology from other sciences, but also actually closed all paths for the development of psychology as a true science. It excluded an objective, causal explanation of mental processes, and reduced psychology to subjective descriptions of the forms of mental life and mental phenomena.

It is easy to understand that such a “science”, which refused to consider mental processes as products of objective development, and did not raise questions about their origin and objective mechanisms, could not exist, and for a long time remained a unique section of idealistic philosophy, not being included in the circle of genuine sciences .

Therefore, from the period when psychology began to be understood as the science of a special form of mental activity that allows a person to navigate the surrounding reality, reflect it, form programs of behavior and control their implementation, the attitude towards the main method of psychological science has changed radically.

The task of psychologists was to create objective methods for studying human mental processes, in no way limiting themselves to the method of introspection and treating it only as one of the auxiliary techniques, which rather had a heuristic value, allowing one to pose questions rather than making it possible to explain causally phenomena and find the laws underlying them. A radical revision of self-observation as a method of scientific knowledge was also associated with the fact that it began to be considered as a complex type of mental activity, which is a product of long-term development, uses verbal formulation of observed phenomena and has very limited application, because not all mental processes occur consciously, but also because the very observation of one’s mental processes can make significant changes in their course.

The main task of psychological science was the development of such objective research methods that would use the usual methods for all other sciences of observing the progress of one or another type of activity and experimentally changing the conditions of its occurrence and could penetrate beyond its external description to the underlying laws.

The main technique of psychological science has become the observation of human behavior in natural and experimental conditions with the analysis of those changes that occur under certain conditions changed by the experimenter. On this path, three main methods of psychological research were created, conventionally called the method structural analysis, experimental genetic method and experimental pathological (or syndrome analysis method).

The method of structural analysis of psychological processes is as follows: a psychologist studying one or another form of mental activity sets the corresponding task for the subject and traces structural structure technical processes (techniques, means, forms of behavior) with the help of which the subject solves a given problem.

This means that the psychologist not only records the final result (memorization of the proposed material, motor reaction to a signal, response to the proposed task), but also carefully traces the process of solving the proposed problem, the auxiliary means on which he relied, etc. This description psychological structure the process being studied and the analysis of its components present significant difficulties and require a number of special auxiliary techniques.

These techniques, which allow for a fairly complete structural analysis, can be direct or indirect.

Direct methods include:

Changing the structure of the problem offered to the subject (with gradual complication, introducing new requirements into it, making it necessary to include new operations in solving the problem);

Offering the subject a number of methods to help solve the problem (choosing external supports, auxiliary techniques, etc.).

The use of these direct methods of structural analysis changes the objective course of the psychological process and makes it possible to establish:

Which of the proposed operations cause the greatest difficulties;

Which of the techniques used leads to the maximum effect.

The described forms of structural analysis are applicable primarily to the objective study of such related forms of mental activity as:

Assimilation or memorization of material;

Problem solving;

Performing constructive or logical operations;

Study of the structure complex shapes meaningful actions.

Indirect, or additional, research methods include the use of such signs that, although not elements of human activity, can be indicators of his general condition, the stress he experiences, etc.

etc. Such techniques, for example, include the use of methods for recording physiological processes (electroencephalograms, electromyograms, galvanic skin reflex, plethysmograms), which themselves do not reveal the peculiarities of the course of mental activity, but can reflect the general physiological conditions characteristic of their course.

Naturally, the use of these indirect, or additional, techniques can gain meaning only with a clear organization of the mental activity itself, which the psychologist studies.

Next to the structural-analytical method, which occupies a leading place in psychology, one can place the experimental-genetic method, which is especially important for child (genetic) psychology.

It is known that all higher psychological processes are the product of long-term development. Therefore, it is especially important for a psychologist to trace how this development process took place, what stages were included in it, and what factors determine the emergence of higher psychological processes.

The answer to this question can be obtained not only by tracing how the same tasks are performed at successive stages of child development (this method is called genetic cross-sections in psychology), but also by creating experimental conditions that would make it possible to identify how this or that mental activity. For this purpose, the subject, who is asked to solve this or that problem, is placed in various conditions. In some cases they require him independent decision tasks, in others they provide him with help, using various means of external visual and effective support, on the one hand, loudly pronouncing solutions, on the other, and watch how he uses this help.

By using the techniques that constitute the essence of the experimental genetic method, the researcher is able not only to identify the conditions under which a subject can optimally master a given activity, but also to experimentally form complex mental processes and come closer to their structure. The experimental genetic method was widely used in Soviet psychology in the studies of L. S. Vygotsky, A. V. Zaporozhets, Ya. Ya. Galperin and provided many valuable facts that were firmly established in psychological science.

Another method of psychology, especially important for neuropsychology and pathopsychology, is the experimental-pathological, or syndromic method of analysis of those changes in behavior that occur during pathological conditions of the brain or with the exceptional development of any one aspect of mental processes.

This method is applicable in relatively rare cases. A psychologist, knowing one factor that obviously changes the course of mental processes, can find out what influence this factor has on the course of all mental activity of the subject as a whole.

This method appears in its clearest forms in neuropsychological research. It consists in the fact that a psychologist who carefully studies people in whom focal brain damage causes a displacement or distortion of one of the conditions for the normal course of mental processes (for example, visual perception, auditory-verbal memory, or strong preservation of an activity program) subjects the course of a whole complex of mental processes to detailed analysis. processes and determines which of them remain intact and which are violated. Such an analysis makes it possible to establish which mental processes are internally related to the disturbed (or excluded) factor and which do not depend on it; it makes it possible to describe an entire syndrome (in other words, a complex of changes) that occurs when one function changes, and makes it possible to identify the mutual dependence (correlation) of individual psychological processes.

A similar method can be applied in general psychology or in the psychology of individual differences, in which overdevelopment of some aspect of mental life (for example, vivid visual memory) or some individual feature of nervous processes (for example, weakness or insufficient mobility of nervous processes) can cause a restructuring of all psychological processes and become decisive factor in the emergence of a whole complex of individual personality characteristics.

Everything we described in general outline methods are methods of psychological research. However, along with them, brief methods for quantitative and qualitative assessment of mental processes (knowledge, skills, abilities) and simple methods for measuring the level of development of mental processes are of great importance for psychology.

Such methods are widely used in psychology and are known as psychological tests (tests). Psychological tests (tests) consist of tasks that are presented to a wide range of subjects to establish their knowledge, skills or abilities. In order for these tests (samples) to provide objective and measurable data, they are first carried out on large number subjects (children of a certain age or people of the same education). From all these tasks, those that are successfully solved by a significant number (for example, two thirds) of all subjects are selected, and only after that they are presented to those subjects whose knowledge, skills or abilities are to be measured. The results of these studies are assessed in conditional points or in ranking estimates (indicating what place a given subject could occupy in relation to the corresponding group of subjects).

The use of psychological tests (tests) may have a certain value for orientation in psychological characteristics large populations. A critical assessment of this method will be given below when considering its value for measuring individual differences between subjects.

It is easy to see that the significance of all the described methods is not the same for those different sections of psychological science, which were mentioned above, and if the method of structural analysis remains fundamental for all sections of psychology, then the experimental genetic method occupies a leading place in children's, and the method of syndromic analysis - in pathological or differential psychology.

In Chapter 2 it was noted that all parties, all components of communication (communicative, interactive, perceptual) act interconnectedly and interdependently. However, each of these parties has very specific ways and techniques that allow the best way improve the communication process. This improves a person’s ability to communicate. For example, the techniques and methods of listening and speaking described in Chapter 2 develop mainly the communicative side of communication. Methods of active psychological interaction most contribute to improving the interactive side of communication. Methods of psychological influence develop all three aspects of communication, but mainly communicative and perceptual. But we know that dividing the concept of “communication” into its three components is very conditional. Consequently, the above techniques and methods of psychological influence and active interaction in joint activities serve as the basis for the development of all three aspects of the communication process, and therefore contribute to improving the individual’s ability to communicate, organizational and communicative qualities of the individual.

Psychological science and social practice have developed the most active and effective methods of education and personality development. Methods such as persuasion, suggestion, and self-hypnosis can be classified as both educational methods and methods of psychological influence. Indeed, the process of education involves a psychological impact on the consciousness, feelings, activities and behavior of students in order to form certain personal qualities. There is a direct relationship between educational and psychological influences. Let's consider some of these methods that actually relate to methods of psychological influence.

Belief- this is a system of verbal and objective influences on the consciousness of trainees (subordinates) or the general opinion of the team, which ensures the voluntary acceptance of orders and their transformation into motives for the behavior of team members. Any influence of a leader is ultimately aimed at forming, consolidating or changing the attitudes, attitudes, thoughts, feelings and actions of students.

It is necessary to distinguish between true beliefs and false beliefs. In entrepreneurial activity, for example, a manager strives to ensure that the employees under his command become not only simple performers, but also proactive, creative workers. False beliefs arise as a synthesis of negative views and negative life experience. Such beliefs include the beliefs of people who adhere to their “credo”: “If you don’t deceive, you won’t live,” “To achieve your goal, all means are good,” etc.

Forms of persuasion can be debates, conversations, personal example, proof and some others. When carrying out these forms of persuasion, one should keep in mind the emotional state of the person being persuaded. For example, some forms of persuasion will be little effective when the person being persuaded is in a state of, say, alcoholic intoxication. In another case, for example, when a partner recognizes and accepts the high authority of a leader, the latter’s personal example enhances the effect of psychological influence.

Special mention should be made of this form of persuasion, as proof. It can be divided into components: thesis, argument, method of proof. Example: prove that a product distribution company carries out intermediary activities between production and consumers (thesis). All marketing intermediaries mediate between production and consumers. A product distribution company is a marketing intermediary (argument). Therefore, this company actually carries out such activities.

At proof may be admitted logical error – combination of theses. For example, it is necessary to prove that Petrov is an experienced marketer, and the arguments chosen are that Petrov is the oldest production worker. Another error in the proof is "circle" (circle in proof, or vicious circle), when the provisions put forward in the theses are used as arguments (for example, “a marketer is a person engaged in marketing activities,” etc.).

Suggestion is a system of verbal and figurative influences on a team and its individual members in order to evoke appropriate states and behavior, needs and habits. The method of suggestion has great potential for preventing fatigue, removing the negative influence of the state of anticipation, stress in emergency situations, etc. In each individual case, the manager can use separate formulas of suggestion. Such suggestion formulas should include simple and understandable words, usually no more than 5-6 words. For example, to relieve excitement in a critical situation, the leader, in an imperative tone that does not raise objections, pronounces the phrase: “Everyone is calm! Everyone stays where they are! We act according to the following plan..."

For quick rest, restoration of strength and performance, you can use the following suggestion formula: “You have already reached a state of complete mental and physical calm, necessary for rest and sleep. A pleasant languor begins to spread throughout your body. You feel drowsy, your eyelids, arms, and legs become heavy. You are in a state of complete peace. You fall asleep. Nothing worries you. You fall into a deep sleep." If such a formula is applied by the subject himself, then we will be dealing with self-regulation of the individual, and the procedure for applying such a formula is called autogenic training. Autogenic training is a system of self-influence techniques, with the help of which it becomes possible to control some involuntary mental processes and states of the body (dulled vigilance, distraction, hypnotic state, etc.). It is especially important to master mental influence techniques for automated control systems operators, vehicle drivers, and athletes. Autogenic training can significantly influence the elimination of temporary unstable unfavorable factors and increase the overall likelihood of error-free performance of the prescribed functions.

A stronger version of suggestion is hypnosis. Hypnosis is used to treat speech defects, alcoholism, eliminate obsessive states, fears, etc.

Everyone knows such cases of suggestibility, which are achieved with the help of psychotherapeutic sessions(for example, psychotherapeutic sessions of Anatoly Kashpirovsky). But if here a certain positive effect in the treatment of various diseases can be achieved, then it is hardly worth talking about the positive influence of the spells of psychics, sorcerers and other “healers” of human souls on people’s health. Of course, at present there are many nuggets in the field of traditional medicine. But, as S. A. Romanov notes, the problem is different - the word “healer” or “folk healer” is now used by outright charlatans and swindlers. “Often random people, ignoramuses, appear on television programs and on the pages of newspapers and undermine the authority of truly traditional healers who have unique capabilities. It is no longer a secret that almost one third of people who claim their healing abilities are people suffering from mental illness. Another third are scammers and swindlers trying to make money from someone else’s misfortune. And only the remaining third are specialists who can provide feasible medical and psychological assistance.”

The press reported on the development in some countries of so-called psychotronic weapons, which are intended to zombify and damage the central nervous system of a person, to manipulate his consciousness and control his behavior. Psychoweapons are based on the use of electronic manipulation of the brain using ultrasound and microwave radiation.

One of necessary conditions effective suggestion is suggestibility. Under suggestibility refers to the ability of a person to change his behavior at the request of another person or group of people, without relying on logic or conscious motives (i.e., unconscious submission to the demands of other people). Suggestibility depends on age (the younger, the higher), gender (most often women are more suggestible than men), intelligence (as the level of education increases, suggestibility usually decreases), state of health (with overwork or after illness, suggestibility becomes higher) and other factors . In addition, suggestibility varies significantly depending on the type of suggestion and the authority of the person making the suggestion.

Imitation- following an example or model. Imitation is aimed at the individual’s external identification of himself with some personality that is significant to him. This personality is called significant other. With obsessive imitation, the subject adopts the behavior, voice, facial expressions, gait, habits, fashion, etc. from a significant other.

Providing psychological assistance. Individual psychological assistance is provided by a specialist psychologist or psychotherapist. It is carried out using the methods of individual conversation, psychological consultation, and psychotherapeutic session. For a trained practical psychologist licensed to provide psychological assistance to clients, the main method is psychological consultation. Consulting involves carrying out a variety of work with the client, psychological diagnosis. Based on the identification of the psychological properties of the individual, a qualified decision is made about the presence of a certain psychological state in the subject. In psychological counseling, before giving any advice to the client, a qualified psychodiagnostician must correctly make a psychological diagnosis, assess the essence psychological problem that worries the client. R. S. Nemov notes that psychological counseling is most often carried out not as a one-time act, but as a series of meetings and conversations with the client, helping him solve his problems. In this case, the results of “input” and “output” psychodiagnostics should be obtained, i.e., data from a psychological examination at the beginning of counseling and after completion of work with the client.

The psychological state of the client is also determined both at the beginning and at the end of psychocorrectional work. Not only the experimenter, but also the client himself must be convinced of the effectiveness of the psychocorrective measures taken. After all, faith in success is one of the most important factors in the effectiveness of any therapeutic intervention.

A certain judgment about the psychological state of clients (employees of a company, enterprise) can be given by a manager in social sphere or the head of the organization who are approached by their subordinates. The reasons can be very diverse: depression, a biased attitude towards an employee on the part of a senior person, conflict in a team, a quarrel in the family, anticipation of fear, etc. The head of an enterprise or company must have thorough psychological knowledge. When conducting a psychological conversation, you are obliged to inspire confidence in yourself, establish contact with the employee, and assess the neuropsychic state of the subordinate, especially before he performs a responsible task. After all, a leader can meet both real psychics and some nervous disorders. In this case, it is necessary to distinguish pretense from a real psychological breakdown, weakness of the nervous system.

In pedagogy, an attempt has been made to use techniques and methods of suggestion in the learning process. The Bulgarian scientist G.K. Lozanov developed the so-called suggestopedia, which is based on methodological techniques of suggestibility in teaching.

Suggestion, self-hypnosis, techniques and methods of suggestive techniques will be more effective if they are carried out against the background of mental or physical relaxation (relaxation). Relaxation – This is a reduction in tension, a state of peace, relaxation. Voluntary relaxation is carried out by adopting a calm posture, relaxing the muscles involved in different kinds activities. Helps you quickly achieve a state of relaxation autogenic training, which was mentioned above.

Methods of psychological influence cannot be considered in isolation from methods of active interaction between people in joint activities. Whenever organizing joint activities, people’s interaction occurs against the background of psychological and emotional mutual influence using a whole arsenal of methods of psychological influence.

Methods of active interaction are divided into two large groups: discussion methods and methods of socio-psychological training.

Discussion methods. Discussion methods include the actual discussion (controversy, dispute) and the “brainstorming” method. In addition to professional, managerial and scientific and technical problems, interpersonal relationships of group members can be subjects of discussion. In this case, group relationships act as a learning model through which students learn the possibilities of self-determination and understanding of each other. The subject of discussion can also be a group discussion of problematic situations. Here, both a task orientation (analysis of problem situations from production practice) and an orientation toward interpersonal relationships are possible. When focused on the task, the group discussion method helps each participant understand his own point of view, develop initiative, communication quality and the ability to use his intellect.

Brainstorming is a technique for stimulating creativity and productivity by having group members express any ideas or thoughts on a given topic without judging them as true or false, meaningless or strange. This technique is based on the assumption that with the usual methods of discussion and problem solving, the emergence of innovative ideas is prevented by the control mechanisms of consciousness, which fetter the flow of these ideas under the pressure of habitual, stereotypical forms of decision-making.

After a brainstorming session, the total mass of ideas expressed is analyzed in the hope that among them there will be at least a few containing the most successful solutions.

Methods of socio-psychological training. Methods of socio-psychological training are divided into two groups: game methods and sensitive method (method of training interpersonal sensitivity).

Game methods. Game methods are intended for developing and making management decisions. For example, for commercial personnel, such a game contributes to the development of management decisions in production and economic situations, especially when accounting is necessary, numerous factors, not all of which can be unambiguously quantified.

It is generally accepted that gaming methods are divided into operational and role-playing. In turn, operational methods are divided into business and managerial methods. At the same time, the division into business and management games is purely conditional, since in a business game management decisions are ultimately developed. In the same way, in a management game, group members are forced to engage in business relationship with partners. An operational game (business, managerial) as a simulation method opens up the possibility for a psychologist to study decision-making processes taking into account individual indicators.

In a role-playing game, an individual is faced with a situation that is characteristic of his real activities and which confronts him with the need to change his attitudes. Conditions are created for the formation of new, more effective communication skills.

In preparation for the games, appropriate documentation is developed. For example, to carry out business games The main documents are a prospectus, a script, a description of the game environment, instructions for players, a manual for the administrator, and a manual for the counting group.

Sensitive method belongs to the category of methods for training interpersonal sensitivity. The main goal of sensitive training is to develop and improve the ability of individuals to understand each other (see paragraph “The mechanism of human perception by a person and mutual understanding in the process of communication”).

Below is a comparative table of methods of psychological influence and active interaction.

Methods of psychological influence

1. Conviction. Forms of persuasion: dispute, discussion, conversation, story, personal example, evidence.

2. Suggestion. Forms of direct suggestion: commands, orders, suggestive instruction.

3. Forms of indirect suggestion: hint, indirect approval, indirect condemnation.

3. Self-hypnosis. In addition to the forms of suggestion listed above, the method of autogenic training is used.

5. Imitation.

6. Psychological assistance.

7. Suggestopedia.

Active Interaction Methods

1. Discussion methods:

¦ discussion;

¦ controversy;

¦ dispute;

¦ “brainstorming”.

2. Methods of socio-psychological training:

1) gaming methods:

– operational (business and management);

– role-playing;

2) sensitive method (method of training interpersonal sensitivity).

The techniques and methods of psychological influence and active interaction in joint activities discussed above undoubtedly contribute to the formation of communicative and organizational qualities of the individual, and when used correctly, they allow us to best regulate our relationships with other people. At the same time, interpreting the information received, we accordingly strive to structure our behavior in such a way as to maintain a stable state of the image of our “I”. Whenever information comes from the outside world that destroys a holistic idea of ​​oneself, a person experiences a feeling of anxiety. The self-perception of your “I” changes. In order to counteract the state of anxiety, and therefore to stabilize self-perception, the stability of the image of one’s “I”, there are various psychological defense mechanisms. Some of them are discussed below.

Crowding out - one of the types of psychological defense, as a result of which thoughts and experiences unacceptable to the individual are expelled from consciousness and transferred to the sphere of the unconscious, continuing to influence the individual’s behavior. The doctrine of repression is an essential component of psychoanalysis, its foundation. According to Sigmund Freud, the purpose of repression is to eliminate socially unacceptable drives from consciousness. Repression removes unpleasant or unacceptable memories and experiences into the unconscious, which become unable to reenter consciousness in their original form. Repression and suppression of desire manifest themselves in neurotic and psychosomatic symptoms - slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, awkward movements and humor. To restore the integrity of the personality and gain its true stability, it is necessary to return the feeling to the area of ​​the conscious “I” self-importance, self-worth. This will reduce the level of anxiety and accept the changes that are taking place without distorting the real picture of the world.

Projection – a psychological defense mechanism consisting in the conscious or unconscious transfer by the subject of his own properties or states to external objects. For example, attributing one’s own (usually repressed) motives and feelings to other people. Unconscious empowerment of other people with your own feelings, unconsciously attributing to them their own, often “shameful” unconscious aspirations. Character traits such as distrust, suspicion, and fanaticism predispose to projection.

Determining personality characteristics by its projections is used in projective techniques (projective tests). The bias in the reflection of the world, due to projection, can be defensive, creative, constructive and pathological.

Rationalization – one of the psychological defense mechanisms. Provides camouflage, concealment from consciousness of true thoughts, feelings and motives for actions, and the formulation of more acceptable explanations of one’s own behavior. Provides a state of internal comfort associated with the desire to maintain self-esteem, self-respect, and prevent the experience of guilt or shame.

According to S. Freud, in the early stages of personality development, rationalization is an effective mechanism of psychological defense. However, for an adult, the active use of rationalization processes leads to inadequate control of behavior, to a discrepancy between the correct understanding of oneself and the world.

When conducting psychological counseling the test method takes a leading place among other methods used in psychological diagnostics. Testing – the basic toolkit of a practical psychologist. Used to provide a standardized measurement of individual psychological differences. Tests make it possible, with a certain probability, to determine the levels of development in individuals of the necessary personal characteristics (temperament, characterological personality traits, level of aspirations, components of the emotional-volitional sphere, etc.). It is important to know what type of tests standardized personality tests should be classified as, with the help of which you can determine the levels of the components of an individual’s organizational and communicative qualities.

It should be noted that psychological science has not yet developed a unified classification of tests. There are many classifications developed based on on different grounds(by the characteristics of the tasks used in the test; by the material presented to the test takers; by the objectivity of the assessment, etc.). For practical psychologists Of interest is the system of dividing tests according to the subject of diagnosis, i.e., according to the quality that is assessed using the test presented. Based on this, all tests can be divided into two large classes: actually psychological tests and achievement tests. In turn, psychological tests are divided into personality (including projective), intellectual, ability tests (including creativity tests) and socio-psychological (Fig. 5).

From the diagram it is clear that projective tests are part of personality tests, A creativity tests – part aptitude tests.

Achievement Tests – one of the psychodiagnostic methods that reveals the degree of a subject’s mastery of specific knowledge, skills and abilities. They are constructed mainly on educational material. As a rule, they are designed for group work in the classroom, college or university auditorium. In some educational institutions tests replace the questioning and examination system. They are also used for professional selection purposes.

Intelligence tests are intended to study the qualitative assessment of the level of intellectual development of an individual. The use of these intelligence tests allows us to identify the personal qualities of the subjects: their levels of activity and motivation, confidence, perseverance, etc.

Aptitude Tests – these are methods that diagnose the level of development of general and special abilities that determine the success of learning, professional activity and creativity. Tests are widely used, especially in the USA, for career guidance and placement in the army, navy, and government agencies.

Creativity tests – This is a type of ability test designed to study and evaluate a person’s creative abilities (the ability to generate unusual ideas, quickly solve problem situations, and make non-standard decisions).

Social psychological tests – These are sociometric techniques and specialized personality tests designed to measure interpersonal relationships in groups, study and identify characteristics social behavior people in small groups and other social communities.

Personality tests – These are psychodiagnostic techniques aimed at assessing the emotional and volitional components of an individual’s mental activity (attitudes, motivation, interests, emotions, behavioral characteristics) in certain social situations.

Projective tests are an integral part of personality tests. This is a set of methods for the holistic study of personality, based on the psychological interpretation of the results. projections. Projection – one of the mechanisms of psychological defense (see paragraph “Mechanisms of psychological defense”). It is characterized by the enrichment of perception processes with memory traces of all past perceptions.

The test methods presented in Chapter 4 relate to personality tests. With their help, it is possible to determine the levels of the constituent organizational and communicative qualities of a person, such as efficiency, dominance, confidence, demandingness, dependence, willpower, level of aspirations, etc. The testing process using these methods can be divided into three stages:

1) choice of test (determined by the purpose of testing and the degree of reliability of test methods adopted in psychodiagnostic practice);

2) direct testing (during self-testing, the order and organization of testing is specified by the instructions);

3) analysis and interpretation of test results. The following is given short description test methods.

Multifactorial personality questionnaire by R. Cattell 6PF. Designed to identify and determine the degree of expression of a person’s characterological qualities in bipolar coordinates (gullibility - suspicion; practicality - daydreaming; rigidity - flexibility; dependence - independence, etc.).

Temperament type. This is a test technique for determining types of temperament using a two-factor model of extroversion and neuroticism according to G. Eysenck.

Determination of communication and organizational inclinations. The ability to clearly and quickly establish contacts with people, the desire to participate in group events, show initiative, ingenuity, and resourcefulness are tested.

Methodology for determining organizational and communication qualities according to L. P. Kalininsky. Using this test-questionnaire, communication and organizational qualities and the degree of their expression are determined (businesslike, desire for dominance, dependence, responsiveness, etc.).

Manifestation of organizational and communicative qualities in interpersonal relationships (T. Leary test). Designed to identify the degree of expression of personality traits according to eight psychological tendencies (dominance, inflexibility, dependence, sociability, self-confidence, etc.).

Leader's organizational skills– a test technique that determines the development of organizational skills in the test subject.

Self-assessment of management style. The types of management styles of the subject are identified (authoritarian, liberal, democratic).

Personal self-esteem. Designed to identify the degree of expression of business and some personal qualities of a manager.

Methodology for determining the locus of control. Designed to identify the subject’s locus of control, i.e., a person’s tendency to attribute responsibility for the results of his activities either to external forces or to his own abilities and efforts.

Methodology Q -sorting. The technique allows us to determine the main tendencies of the subject’s behavior in a real group (dependence - independence, sociability - unsociability, etc.).

Methods for determining willpower. Determines the degree of expression of the individual’s volitional efforts.

Level of personality aspirations. Determines the possible degree of discrepancy between the aspirations and capabilities of the individual.

Methods of psychology are certain means and methods through which scientists can obtain reliable and truthful data about a particular mental phenomenon. This information is then used in the development process scientific theory and practical advice.

Typology of B. G. Ananyev

There is the most popular classification of psychology methods according to B. G. Ananyev.

The first group includes organizational methods. It is represented by comparative (different groups are compared according to some selected criterion - gender, age, activity), longitudinal (multiple studies of the same respondents are carried out over a long time) and complex method (the object is studied by scientists from different scientific fields, different techniques are used).

The second group belongs to empirical methods psychology. They are represented by observation and introspection, experiment, psychodiagnostic tools (tests, questionnaires, interviews, surveys, conversations, sociometry), analysis of activity products and the biographical method.

The third group focuses on methods that can be used to process data. They include quantitative and qualitative methods.

The fourth group represents interpretive methods of psychology. The use of genetic (the process of analyzing the object of study from the point of view of its development, identifying certain phases, stages, etc.) and structural methods (establishing structural connections between all the traits and properties of an individual).

Observation

Methods developmental psychology include this way of understanding reality. Observation is characterized by conducting it under normal conditions for the subject, without any influence on him. Everything the respondent does and says is recorded in detail and then amenable to analysis. You can write down everything or select a specific moment. The use of continuous recording is characteristic of the study of personality as a whole, and selective recording is characteristic of recording certain manifestations of mental reality. Methods of general psychology are also represented by introspection.

Observation is characterized by compliance with certain conditions, namely, it is purposeful (a clear definition of the purpose and tasks of the study); naturalness (mostly the observed persons do not know that they are being studied); the presence of a plan; exact observance of the object and subject; limiting the elements that are the object of observation; development of stable criteria to evaluate signs; ensuring clarity and reliability.

The survey also introduces psychology methods. It lies in the fact that data can be obtained as a result of answers to questions by the subjects themselves. The survey can be conducted orally, in writing or freely.

Experiment

The basic methods of psychology include such a thorough technique as experiment. The advantage of the method is the elimination of side variables that can influence the object of the survey and change it. Also, the experimenter can purposefully change the conditions and observe the results of these changes, how they affect the course of mental processes and human reactions. The experiment can be repeated several times under the same conditions and carried out with a larger number of people.

Often, developmental psychology methods also include an experiment. It is ascertaining when certain features of the psyche or personal quality that already exist are revealed. Another type is formative - special influence on respondents in order to change a certain characteristic.

Questioning and sociometry

These ways of understanding reality are not defined as the main methods of psychology, but they bring a lot useful information. The survey involves the subject's responses to planned questions. In order for the data obtained as a result of such a technique to be reliable and reliable, the survey should be repeated and the results monitored using other methods.

The author of sociometry is considered to be J. L. Moreno. It is used to study the social psychology of small groups. Several questions are formulated that are adequate for a particular group, to which the respondent must answer. For example, who from the team will you invite to your birthday? Who won't you invite to your birthday? You can specify one, two, three people depending on the purpose of the study.

Testing

The presented method is intermediate between subjectivity and objectivity of the study. Testing also has its own subtypes. For example, questionnaire tests, which are primarily used to study personal characteristics. The respondent, consciously or unconsciously, can influence the final result.

Task tests are used in the study of intelligence. There are also projective techniques that involve free interpretation, which is quite dangerous for the reliability and validity of the data. Such techniques are often used to test children or to measure emotional states (Luscher test, Rorschach test, TAT).

Other methods

Psychology, having a high level of subjectivity, borrows mathematical methods processing data so that the results are reliable and valid. Analysis of the products of activity is often used, for example, paintings, essays, because in them a person projects his mental reality.

A scientist, depending on the object of research and goals, can select an arsenal of methods and techniques in order to study a mental phenomenon to the fullest extent.

The following methods are used to solve psychological problems:

laboratory and natural experiment;

observation;

research of activity products;

questionnaires and testing;

biographical method;

psychological modeling;

comparative genetic method, etc.

The experimental method is the main method of psychology; differs in that the researcher specifically creates circumstances that stimulate the manifestation of a certain mental phenomenon. At the same time, the influence of individual factors on its occurrence and dynamics is established. The experiment is carried out as many times as necessary to identify the corresponding pattern.

A laboratory experiment is characterized by the use of special laboratory equipment, which makes it possible to accurately record the quantity and quality of external influences and the mental reactions they cause. In a laboratory experiment, the activity of the subjects is stimulated by special tasks and regulated by instructions. So, to determine the amount of attention of the subject, using a special device (tachistoscope), a group of objects (letters, figures, words, etc.) is presented for a very short time (tenths of a second) and the task is set - to pay attention to a significantly larger number of objects . The obtained results are statistically processed.

In a natural experiment, the usual conditions for a given person’s activity are preserved, but it is specially organized in accordance with the purpose of the experiment. Subjects, as a rule, do not know that the experiment is being conducted and therefore do not experience the stress characteristic of laboratory conditions.

Observation methods involve an explanation of a mental phenomenon in the process of its specially organized perception. Purposeful scientific observation is based on a specific theoretical hypothesis; it is carried out according to a pre-developed plan, and its progress and results are clearly recorded.

The observation method includes: a method of studying the products of activity, which allows you to determine a person’s abilities, the level of his knowledge, skills and abilities; questionnaire method, and in particular the clinical conversation method.

The testing method (English test - sample, trial) is a method for diagnosing the mental capabilities of an individual (certain abilities, inclinations, skills). The widespread use of tests began in 1905, when the Beans-Simon test was proposed to diagnose the development of child intelligence.

A psychological test is a short, standardized, usually time-limited test task to establish individual individual characteristics of the subject. Currently, tests are widely used that determine the level of intellectual development, spatial orientation, psychomotor skills, memory, ability for professional activities, achievement tests (determining the level of mastery of knowledge and skills), diagnostics of personal qualities, clinical tests, etc.

The value of tests depends on their validity and reliability - their preliminary experimental verification.

The most common are intelligence tests (Cattell test, etc.) and personality tests (MMPI), TAT test of thematic apperception, tests by G. Rorschach, G. Eysenck, J. Guilford, S. Rosnzweig (16-factor personality questionnaire), etc.

In recent years, for the purposes of psychological diagnostics, the products of an individual's graphic activity - handwriting, drawings - have become widely used. The graphic method of psychological diagnostics, being a modification of the projective method, allows one to study the features of a person’s projection of reality and its interpretation. In this case, standardized techniques and procedures developed in Western psychology are used: “drawing of a person” (F. Goodenough and D. Harris test), “house-tree-person” test (D. Buka), “drawing of a family” (W. Wolf) .

The biographical research method consists in identifying the key factors in the formation of an individual, his life path, crisis periods of development, features of socialization. Current events in the life of an individual are also analyzed and possible events in the future are predicted, life graphs are drawn up, causometry is performed (from the Latin causa - cause and Greek metro - measurement) - a causal analysis of inter-event relationships, analysis of the psychological time of an individual, when the starting events of individual periods of personality development or degradation.

The biographical research method is aimed at identifying the lifestyle of an individual, the type of his adaptation in the environment. It is used both for analysis and for correction of an individual’s life path. It is possible to diagnose the subject using the Biograph computer program. The method allows us to identify the factors that most influence an individual’s behavior. The data obtained is used to correct the individual’s behavior, personality-oriented psychotherapy, relaxation (weakening) of age-related crises.

Recently, the method of psychological modeling has become widely used in psychological research. It is expressed in a symbolic imitation of mental phenomena or the organization of various types of human activity in an artificially constructed environment. With its help, it is possible to simulate some aspects of perception, memory, logical thinking, as well as create bionic models of mental activity (for example, perceptrons - recognition systems).

The comparative genetic method is a way of studying mental patterns by comparing individual phases of the mental development of individuals.

Social psychology uses both methods of general psychology and methods of sociology - group experiment, conversation, questioning and interviewing, study of documents, participant observation (by introducing the researcher into the studied environment), observation in test situations, etc. There are also specific methods of social psychology, one of them is the method of sociometry - measuring the informal relationships of people in a group. A graphic representation of these relationships is called a sociogram.

To study the influence of a social group on an individual’s position, the dummy group method is used.

To diagnose socially significant personality traits, the method of expert assessments and the method of group personality assessment are used.

To study a particular psychological problem, an appropriate system of research techniques and rules is used, i.e., a specific research methodology: putting forward a hypothesis, choosing an experimental technique and appropriate material, selecting control and experimental groups of subjects, determining experimental series, statistical and theoretical processing of experimental material and so on.

In terms of objectives and research methods, psychology is at the intersection of social and natural sciences.

A scientific understanding of the human psyche is possible only with a holistic consideration of the totality of mental phenomena. Absolutization of certain aspects of the psyche leads to limited concepts and theories.